Deforestation: Conservation and
Sociological Effects
Emily
Rupp
Biology
Senior Seminar
Dr.
Stan Grove
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I. Introduction
1.
Western countries
2.
Developing countries
1.
Erosion
2.
Protection
3.
Pharmaceutical drugs
III. Societal
Effects
1.
Agriculture
2.
Enclave production
IV. Economic
Issues
V. Conclusion
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Introduction Top
Forests have covered
the earth for millions of years, providing habitat and food for animals and
humans. These forests have stabilized
different ecosystems and have continued the natural cycle that keeps plants
and animals in check. The discovery
of fire changed all of this. It was
the beginning of deforestation, a process that has continued and increased
over the last 200,000 years. Humans
are the responsible party for the deforestation that has occurred.
Humans discovered that animals could be driven with fire.
This led to accelerated forest loss due to uncontrolled burning for
hunting use (Miller & Tangley 1991: 28).
Agriculture was the next problem discovery.
Agriculture introduced land clearing of forested areas for crops. Suddenly forests were being destroyed at a faster
rate. The 18th and 19th
centuries brought about the Industrial Revolution, and soon people were moving
from the rural country to the more urbanized cities for job reasons. Forests were cleared for villages that turned
into small towns that became cities. As
the cities grew more forest was cleared. The
solution to space needs was solved by clearing more forest. This was the history of many of the more developed
nations (Richard & Tucker 1988: 213). The
Deforestation is also a problem in third world countries, but for different
reasons. The first half of the deforestation history
is similar, but development didn't go quite like that of
Biological Effects
Forests are extremely important to both living and non-living things. Forests contribute to
many aspects of life. It is not surprising
that the destruction of tropical forests have people in a state of distress.
These "forests constitute half of the forests of the world and
they nest 70% of all plant and animal species of the planet" (Downing
et al. 1992: 115). Erosion is a major problem, especially in mountainous
regions. Many farmers who cut into
forests on the sides of mountains eventually experience problems with erosion.
Forests provide the roots to hold the
important top soils in place. The thick
canopy allows the falling rain to slowly reach the forest floor, while creating
important pools in leaves and small crevices in trees.
Most of the time, much of the rain will evaporate before it ever reaches
the forest floor (Miller & Tangley 1991: 12).
Often the tropical forest soils aren't meant for growing crops, and
are only usable for a year or two. The
soil in the tropical forests hold very few of the naturally needed nutrients,
so the trees and plants store the nutrients in the trunks or stems.
When land is cleared by fire for agriculture, the nutrients from the
burned vegetation are temporarily in the soil (Downing et
al. 1992: 73). The result is a false sense of security from
land that can only produce for a very limited amount of time. The nutrients are depleted within the first,
maybe the second, growing season. After
the initial success and the eventual failure, new land is needed and cleared.
This occurs most often for the subsistence farmer, while the corporate
farms own the best, most farmable land (Schmidt, Berry, Gordon
1999: 25).
Forests also provide protection for animals and people.
There are many societies that have survived without outside intrusion
because the forests supply a barrier. "[A]
vast diversity of human culture thrives in forests. In each of the Amazon and the Congo river basins,
three or four hundred distinct languages and cultures have been described"
(Lynch in Bowles & Prickett 2001: 115). Cultures remain untouched in the depths of the
forest. People can keep their traditional
ways of life and language without the fear of intrusion by outsiders, such
as missionaries and tourists. Deforestation
has changed these societies. Logging roads provide entrances deep into the
forest where tourists can now access these untouched tribes. Ancient traditions are now in jeopardy because
outside influences are being introduced and offer different ways of doing
things. These forest societies have
survived without contacting outside people, and now changes are occurring
due to "civilized" influences.
Human health depends on pharmaceutical drugs.
One discovery after another is made in the scientific drug field. New drugs are introduced every day. Many feared viruses now have vaccinations, and
prescription drugs battle bacteria. Pain
relievers for every type of ache have been developed, and new leads are being
made by scientists. The point of interest
is that many components of these pharmaceuticals come from the tropical forests
around the world. These unique plants
are important commodities to the drug world. In fact, "40% of prescription drugs dispensed
by
Forests are home to many species of plants and animals.
Fifty percent of the Earth's plant and animal species reside in tropical
forests. According to Miller and Tangley,
"Twenty-five percent of the Earth's total species could be extinct by
the mid-twenty-first century if the current rate of deforestation continues"
(1991: xvii).
There is spectacular diversity among the plant and animal kingdoms. Much of this diversity lives within the forests
that are rapidly being removed. Some
species of animals are being threatened by human encroachment on their habitats.
As humans remove forested land to live on, the boarder between humans
and animals shrinks, and soon both find one another "trespassing." The animal-human conflict leads to poaching
and species endangerment or even extinction.
Forests offer safety for these unique creatures.
Societal Effects
Forests don't
affect plants and animals only. Throughout
the evolution of humans, there has been a very delicate relationship between
the environment and humans. Now in the twenty-first century, this relationship
is still a struggle to balance. People
have the tools to be much more powerful than the environment, and humans have
been taking advantage of this power. In general, humans haven't paid much attention
to the future, focusing on the issue at hand without looking at the repercussions
to come. This is also the case with
deforestation and the attitudes surrounding the environment. Not enough of the people realize how dangerous
deforestation is to humans, as well as the entire planet.
People feel the effects of the forest most closely in agriculture. The tropical regions are accustomed to the tropical
vegetation. Agriculture presents a
problem with plants that aren't native to the area and haven't adapted to
environmental pests. Not only do farmers
struggle with the nutrients in the soil, but they also struggle with keeping
their crops alive due to disease and insects. Planting non-native crops in tropical, acidic,
clay-like soil is a costly and unsuccessful venture. The moist environment facilitates crop diseases
that easily destroy any hard work. Insects
and weeds also take advantage of the unprotected crops. World War II brought about chemical research
and the development of chemicals weapons, and chemicals to control tropical
diseases. It was the beginning of chemical use, and these chemicals moved
straight to agriculture (Vandermeer & Perfecto 1995:
70). To help battle these strange diseases and insects,
pesticides were used. Unfortunately,
often times these chemicals are overused or abused, making them dangerous
and unhelpful. Agriculture wasn't meant
to be used in place of forests.
Enclave production takes place in many of the Central American countries.
The land, that used to be forest, was converted
into a gigantic agricultural corporation. The company controls all aspects of its workers'
lives. The United Fruit Co. is the
best example in
Forests also are beneficial in the overall environmental picture. The greenhouse effect is an important issue
concerning the forests of the world. Burning
forests release stored carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane into the
atmosphere. The release of these gases
intensifies the natural greenhouse effect and contributes to future global
warming. Deforestation also "reduces
the forests' capacity to absorb carbon from the air, an important regulatory
mechanism in the natural carbon cycle" (Miller &
Tangley 1991: 10).
If current rates of emission and deforestation continue, by 2030 global
warming could increase from 3 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit.
The greenhouse effect will soon become a greenhouse problem (Miller
& Tangley 1991: 10).
Forests give a natural stabilizer to the environment.
With even minute temperature changes, weather and climate will alter,
throwing off human and natural systems, leaving many species unable to adjust.
Economic Issues
Some underlying issues of deforestation are poverty and education. The
The
population for developing countries in 1992 was about 4 billion. This is a staggering percentage of the total
world population. Of these 4 billion
people, more than 2.5 billion lived in rural areas. Of these 2.5 billion, 1 billion were below the
poverty line (Schmidt, Berry, Gordon 1999: 16). It isn't
complete coincidence that poor people are found near the forests.
Many of these people are women, smallholder farmers, or landless. "The IFDA (International Fund for Agricultural
Development) report concludes that it is not a matter of chance that many
(though not all) poor people live in areas of extreme environmental fragility"
(Schmidt, Berry, Gordon 1999:17). There is a definite connection between the poor
and the forests. Peluso
points out that "rich forests and poor people are often found together,
but when those rich forests are gone the people are even poorer" (Peluso
1992: 166). The forest resources
are simply temporary solutions to the greater issues at hand. People need land to grow food or to merely live.
They are pushed to the outskirts, to the edge of the society.
Here they must clear space for themselves, removing a chunk of the
precious forest, hoping that this land will provide enough food to survive. The land supplies food for a year, but then
a family must move again, clearing a new plot of land, removing another chunk
of forest. The forest is slowly depleted
of its resources and the people stay poor, or become even poorer as they use
their resources.
Logging, both illegal and legal, is another component of deforestation. Often times it is the home country that is doing
the cutting, but it is a Westernized country doing the purchasing. The tropical logging comes out of developing
countries that are in need of an economic boost. Deforestation is occurring in many countries
without organization and a plan for the future.
"It is evident that private timber and lumber enterprises, whether
of foreign or local origins, have played significant roles in the deforestation
of the tropical rainforests of
The population in these countries continues to increase, forcing people
to move and find work or food. There
is a lack of job opportunities in the urban areas for people living in the
slums, so they look elsewhere. Logging
roads lead them farther into the forests.
The governments, not knowing what to do with their poor people, encourage
them to continue making their way into the rural areas, the forests. With the increase in people stricken with poverty,
there is a natural unrest among the poor. They see how some people live, and realize that
it is the poor people that are pushed to the outskirts, barely surviving.
The controlled factors create a dismal picture of people without options
other than moving into the forested area (Schmidt, Berry,
Gordon 1999: 17-18). Natural disasters
are devastating in these situations. Both the forests and the people are barely holding
onto life, but their fragile existence is greatly endangered when coupled
with a natural disaster of some sort.
Conclusion
There is the popular idea that these tropical forests are wild jungles,
ready to take back over whatever land is left untended.
Unfortunately, these forests are unable to reclaim their land. There are a number of reasons that the forests
struggle with regeneration. The first
has to do with clearing and burning agricultural techniques. These methods remove the nutrients from the
soil. The forests are very complex,
and seedlings can only tolerate a very narrow range of temperatures and humidity.
The seeds are also often spread and pollinated by animals.
Usually there are only a couple of species that are able to spread
and/or pollinate the plants. There
also need to be multiple members of the same plant species in close proximity
for reproduction to occur. There are
also many intricate symbiotic relationships within forests. Often times, tough grasses and shrubs move into
the cleared forest area, making it very difficult for forests plants to move
back in (Gradwohl & Greenberg 1988: 28).
These
problems will only continue unless something is changed.
Populations in developing countries increased by 2 billion, doubling
between 1960 and 1990, and there is an expected increase of 3 billion between
1990 and 2020. Another overwhelming
statistic is that only eight countries contain 2/3 of the 2,400 million hectares
of closed forests; and simply 22 countries account for 85% (Miller
& Tangley 1991: 8).
The responsibility lies only with a few countries, and they are countries
that don't have the funds to protect all forested land.
There needs to be a whole world effort to keeps forests a priority. It is important to educate people all around
the globe about reforestation, better ways of farming, and sustainable forestry.
The other important part is to have the local farmers and village people
be excited and involved in the projects of upholding
the forests. There need to be alternative modes of survival
for poor. There has to be involvement
at all levels, from international officials to the poor farmers.
The effects of deforestation touch the environment as well as people.
The entire globe is connected to these forests, and it is the responsibility
of everyone to respect and protect them.
Works Cited
Bowles, Ian A., and
Glenn T. Prickett. Footprints in the Jungle.
Chew, Sing C. World Ecological Degradation.
Downing, Theodore E., et al. Development
or Destruction: The Conversion of Tropical
Durning, Alan Thein. Saving the Forests:
What Will It Take?
Gradwohl, Judith, and Russell Greenberg. Saving
the Tropical Forests.
Miller, Kenton, and
Laura Tangley. Trees of Life.
Peluso, Nancy
Lee.
Richards, John F.,
and Richard P. Tucker. World Deforestation in the Twentieth Century.
Schmidt, Ralph, Joyce K. Berry, John
C. Gordon. Forests to Fight Poverty.
CT:
Vandermeer, John H., and Ivette Perfecto. Breakfast of Biodiversity.
Institute
for Food and Development Policy, 1995.