According to the Websterâs New World Dictionary, the first definition of abortion is the spontaneous act in which the body expels an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive, miscarriage (Neufeldt & Guralnik, 4). Yet others define abortion as ãthe termination of a pregnancy with resulting death of the human fetus,ä relating more to the planned procedures to produce this specific response (Ashley & OâRourke, 141). In our society we have taken on this second view of the meaning, rather than abortion being a spontaneous act, it is a deliberate procedure sought by the mother that removes an embryo or fetus. This deliberate act has arisen throughout a controversial history. Before the procedures were made legal, women used many primitive methods. Some of these methods include jumping from great heights, having others jump on the pregnant womanâs abdomen, ingestion of toxic substances, and the use of invasive probes such as sticks, knitting needles, or wire hangers (Callahan, 252).

Although these primitive procedures might result in an abortion, they were unsafe for the women who endured them. Abortion in the United States was illegal until the early 1970s. Once legalized, abortions were localized to the coastal densely populated cities, such as in the states California and New York. Abortion was legalized nation wide on January 22, 1973 due to the efforts the key court cases of Roe v. Wade, and Doe v. Botton. Roe was an unmarried woman from Texas that wanted to challenge the abortion laws because she herself wanted to have the procedure to relieve the unborn child she carried. The second case, Doe v. Botton had a different outlook on the justification for abortion. Doe, a married childless woman, opposed the laws because of the lack of choice given to women. Doe noted the failures of contraceptives, persons unprepared for parenthood, and the possible relief of danger to womenâs health with legalized abortion. Through the concerns and efforts of these two women, the nation legalized abortion.

Although abortion was legal, the government still felt a need to allow themselves access to its policy by establishing the trimester framework. The average pregnancy lasts about thirty-eight weeks, or nine months and the time in which a woman carries a child is split into three-month periods known as trimesters. Pregnant females should undergo prenatal care during every trimester to safeguard the health and development of the baby. The trimester framework establishes who, when, and how abortions should be carried out within each trimester.

Baker (1995) explains the three trimester periods, first starting with the first. According to the government, abortions during the first trimester are made through the decision of the female who is carrying the fetus. The physician can assist the patient by informing her of the procedure that is appropriate and guide her through the process. During the first trimester neither the state nor the national government is involved with the decision or process, it is entirely dependent on the woman. The second trimester, although it is essentially the same as the first, makes one additional change. It allows the state to make regulations and assume involvement based on the health of the woman receiving the procedure. Finally the third trimester makes a switch from state governments not assuming a role in the abortion process to states that are willing to go against the wishes of the woman who is requesting the abortion. During the third trimester the government takes into consideration the viability of the fetus and the potential life, meaning some states might rule in favor of inhibiting an abortion. At this point the state can also make decisions based on the life and health of the mother, favoring abortions that allow for the woman to remain healthy and safe.

In mentioning the regulations that the government has on abortion it is important to note a few key statistics. Half of abortions occur before the eighth week of pregnancy, while five out of six abortions are within the first trimester (Hatcher, 1998). Another source tells us that only ten percent of all abortions in the United States are second trimester (between thirteen and twenty four weeks). Less than one percent of abortions are after twenty weeks (Baker, 1995).

Abortion has become a common practice in our society; these statistics from the Alan Guttmacher Institute webpage reveal this in some numerical explanations. An estimated forty-six million abortions occur per year. Of these abortions about twenty million are illegal procedures. Because of its growing appeal, statistics projects forty-three percent of females will have at least one abortion by the time they are forty-five years old. Each year it is reported that about two of every one hundred women age fifteen to forty-four have an abortion. Of all the women that have had abortions, forty- seven percent have had at least one previous abortion and fifty-five percent of them have at least had a prior birth. In America it is estimated that forty-eight percent of pregnancies are unintended, and about half of these unintended pregnancies will result in abortions (Alan Guttmacher Institute). Although abortion is a controversial topic in history, an individual bases the decision of whether or not to support abortion upon personal ethics and beliefs.

Gilbert and Bakerâs Positions of when Life Begins

One's view on abortion can be determined through their understanding of when life begins. Authors proclaim life begins at different stages in development. Gilbert, a scientist and author of developmental biology textbooks gives seven different positions (Gilbert). The first is the metabolic view. This view states there is no point at which life begins. The sperm and the egg are as much alive as anything else. Thus, this position says that life is always present. The second position is the genetic view. Those who accept this position think that life begins with the fusion of the egg and the sperm. Life begins at fertilization at the formation of the zygote.

Gilbertâs third position, the embryological view states that the single individuality of a fetus is not fixed until the twelfth day of development. Gilbert bases this statement upon the fact that sometimes identical twins do not arise until day twelve, bringing two distinct individuals. Next the neurological view argues that since society describes death as a loss of EEG (electroencephalogram) pattern then life should be described as the beginning of that pattern. The EEG shows electrical currents generated on an individualâs brain. On the fetus this pattern arises near week twenty-seven.

The ecological/technological view states that a fetus is a life when it can exist independent from maternal biological environment, Gilbert states that this is approximately at week twenty-five of the gestation period with some technological assistance for things such as immature lungs. The next view is the immunological view. Life begins when an organism can make the distinction between self and non-self. Typically in humans this occurs at the time of birth. The last position is the integrated physiological view that states a fetus is life when it is finally born and independent from its mother. Meaning a fetus is independent when it has a complete circulatory, alimentary, and respiratory systems or frankly also at the time of birth.

Not every author agrees upon these positions noted by Gilbert. Baker gives a list of eight different positions in her book that helps counselors support women undergoing abortion (1995). Bakerâs first position is much like that of Gilbertâs explaining that life begins at conception. Baker proclaims that at this time there is potential of life, a future and end result of a child. Bakerâs next position says that life begins when an embryo has a heartbeat, at about four to five weeks LMP (last menstrual period). Baker explains the support of this saying that at death we no longer have a heartbeat, so life is when it begins. Baker notes at this point that although there is a heartbeat, blood is not actually pumped throughout the body until about ten weeks LMP.

Baker next describes a fetus as living when it has identifiable body parts. At about eight weeks the fetus has formed immature arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, and toes. More importantly than these things being present is the fact that the fetus at eight weeks does not have the capability to breathe. Along the lines of presence of body parts, the fetus can also be described as living when it resembles a newborn child. During the second trimester the fetus looks like a newborn child because all of its body parts are proportionate. Another position states that life starts for a fetus at the point of birth.

Bakerâs next position states that a fetus is living at the point when quickening occurs. Quickening happens at about sixteen to twenty weeks. Quickening is the time in which a mother can feel fetal movements. Another position describes that a fetus is living when it reaches the point of viability, which corresponds to Gilbertâs ecological/technological view. The main difference between these authorâs points is that Gilbert labels this time at about twenty-five weeks while Baker describes it at about twenty-two to twenty-four weeks with technological intervention. But this point of viability could also be at twenty-eight weeks to seven months without intervention.

In Bakerâs last position of life begins when the fetus demonstrates the same or similar brain and central nervous system development as a newborn. Baker notes that even at birth, neural connections are not yet complete. Human brain cells reproduce up to two years after birth at a rapid rate. Fetuses have organized brain waves, similar to that of newborns at about thirty-one weeks.

Abortion Procedures

Defining when life begins is one way to determine if one believes abortion is an acceptable procedure, but another is the specific detail of the procedure. There are several different types of abortion procedures that are all coordinated to the age of the fetus. The Information Page on Abortion as well as Knight and Callahan (1989) in the book Preventing Birth: Contemporary Methods and Related Moral Controversies clearly explain each of the abortion procedures. A very early abortion, called the menstrual extraction, consists of suction powered vacuum pump that takes everything out of the uterus. Because this procedure is done at a very early stage of the pregnancy, dilation of the cervix is not required. A second type, the suction and curettage, is a second trimester procedure. This time the pregnancy is farther along, meaning that the cervix must be dilated. At this point, the doctor inserts a tube into the uterus. This tube is larger than the previous method so that the larger parts of the fetus can also be extracted. The suction by a vacuum tears the body of the fetus and placenta apart, however sometimes body parts are too large for the tube to remove so the abortionist must manually extract them.

The next procedure called dilation and curettage (also known as D & C) uses a quite different method. At this time the cervix is still dilated. Instead inserting a vacuum as the main source of force, an abortionist introduces a curette or loop-shaped knife. The curette cuts up the fetus and scrapes the uterine lining to detach the placenta. The next method known as the dilation and evacuation (D & E) is a second trimester (fourteen to twenty-six weeks) procedure. Again the abortionist dilates the cervix, which might be a greater dilation because of the toughness of the fetal developing tissues. The abortionist then crushes the fetusâs skull and snaps its spine so that the body parts are removed more easily. Often it is necessary to use an ultrasound or an assistant to account for all the body parts. Because this is a second trimester procedure, it is sometimes important to soften tissues before the procedure. To soften tissues, the fetus is essentially killed by an injection of urea into the amniotic fluid, through rupturing of membranes, or cutting the umbilical cord nearly twenty-four hours before the procedure.

The saline, prostaglandin, and urea installation requires a concentrated salt or urea solution to be injected into the amniotic fluid. This causes burning and poisons the fetus as the fetus ingests the solution. Then the prostaglandin hormone, which is also part of the injection, stimulates uterine contractions to expel the fetus from the motherâs body. Another procedure called the hysterectomy is a procedure that can be done in either the second or third trimesters. This procedure is done like a cesarean section. The abortionist surgically opens the uterus to remove the placenta and the fetus. Then the fetus is left to die. This procedure receives some negative reviews because much of the time the fetus is viable meaning it is old enough to be saved with proper technological intervention.

The last procedure, probably the most controversial of all the procedures is the Dilation and Extraction (D & X). During this procedure delivery of the fetus is induced, until the appearance of the head. At this point the abortionist takes a pair of scissors to the base of the fetusâs head. The abortionist creates and enlarges a wound so that a suction catheter can be inserted. The abortionist uses a suction catheter to suck out the brains of the fetus so that the skull will collapse for easier removal. The extraction of this live fetal brain tissue can be used for transplantation, treatments in reversing the aging process in older adults, and for various other brain tissue research. This method is believed to have very little complication, and can be done until late in pregnancy, up to thirty-two weeks or more (remember a full term pregnancy is usually about thirty-eight weeks) (The Information Page on Abortion).

Because of the controversial nature of the dilation and extraction method, at least thirty states have passed laws banning this procedure. Although many states have made this procedure illegal, the federal government has not. The federal government has reviewed this issue many times, but has been unable to make a unanimous agreement. In 1995, congress created an amendment to make the dilation and extraction abortion method illegal (The Abortion Law Homepage, 2002). Although President Clinton found the procedure unethical, he chose to veto the amendment (Robinson). The ultimate reason for guiding his vote was he felt that by voting in favor of the ban, it might limit a mother with severe health problems. This is a procedure could help a mother in a late pregnancy to abolish the pregnancy if it threatened her health. Clinton made one principal distinction; by allowing one the freedom to choose abortion does not make it necessarily acceptable and ethical for every individual (Fry & Veatch, 210).

Reasons Women Choose to Abort

Each person has the right to control their body, which includes the decision of what happens to their body. There are many reasons in which a woman might choose to follow through with an abortion procedure. The first is that a contraception method failed. The woman tried to protect herself from pregnancy, but due to unfortunate and unforeseen situations, she conceived. Another unfortunate circumstance is if the child was formed through a violent act such as rape. But there are still other reasons in which a mother might choose to abort, like a mother is not socially or economically capable of raising a child. This is almost categorized as a benefit to society because another child will not have to be supported through more public expense. (Fry & Veatch, 37).

There continues to be more complicated reasons to abort. Sometimes the pregnancy itself can be unhealthy for the women, in which instance it appears more important to abort than both mother and child dying. In a world where invitro-fertilization and artificial semination has become commonplace there are other reasons why a mother might choose to abort. Many times multiples, more than one fetus present in the uterus, are the result of these procedures. Sometimes multiples can again be detrimental to the mother, but one fetus can also be detrimental to another held in the same uterus. Sometimes through the process of abortion, the survival rate can increase to the fetus still left in the uterus (Fry & Veatch, 247).

A more technological reason to abort is due to the results of genetic testing. Genetic testing is a screening process done to a fetus to detect if any genetic diseases are present. This is seen as a treatment in which prevents debilitating consequences such as death caused from gene and chromosomal abnormalities. One fatal genetic disorder to which the Jewish ethnic group pays a considerable amount of attention is the presence of the disease called Tay-Sachs. Tay-Sachs disease currently has no course of treatment, and those with it usually die by age five (The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke National Institutes of Health). Another ethnically linked chromosomal disorder is sickle-cell anemia. Genetic testing can be used to help eliminate these fetuses as a way of ãpurifying a gene pool,ä (Fry &Veatch, 235). Genetic testing can also show the susceptibility a child might have to a certain disease.

Rights of the Mother, Fetus, and Father

Often in society the decision and right to control oneâs body over powers the idea of potentiality to life. Some describe the right of life starting when a mother has assumed an obligation to the fetus. Once a parent is trying to conceive a child, there is an obligation. With this obligation the right to life is born. But, if the pregnancy was unplanned there was not an obligation to the child. Therefore the fetus never assumes the right to life. At this point, because of the absence of obligation, the mother is not violating the fetusâs rights (Kushner & Thomasma, 64). In making this point, it is clear that the use of birth control is simply an admittance of no obligation. Birth control expresses a refusal to assume the responsibilities that come with parenthood. Since the morning after pill and abortion are seen as types of birth control then the person has not done anything ethically wrong (Kushner & Thomasma, 67). A sexually active person who does not seek the use of birth control and does not intend to follow through with the responsibilities of parenthood has demonstrated unethical behavior. Also seen as unethical and violating the right to life is a mother who first agrees to have a child, and then changes her mind to choose abortion (Kushner & Thomasma, 67).

There is a point in which the mother that does not seek an abortion automatically gives the fetus a commitment of right to life. This is also considered in the use of assisted birth. Those who pursue pregnancy in this fashion are understood to give the fetus right of life. This then leads to questions of multiples, and the presence of deformed or genetically abnormal fetuses. The right to life is then only granted if it is ãcapable of achievement of moral capacities and independence, and that minimum conditions and expectations,ä (Kushner & Thomasma, 67). This does not reach out into all aspects however, specifically if selected abortion is based upon eye color, hair color, and intelligence. Things such as sex selection are not condoned. This is not a system of meaningful reproduction. By choosing based on sex, parents are asserting predetermined roles (Callahan, 136).

Some see the fetus as an innocent life that is human. Those in favor of this view see abortion as unnatural, preventing human nature from occurring. But society leans more toward the view of a fetus assuming rights when parents accept the responsibility of caring and nurturing their offspring. A fetus however does have the potentiality of becoming a human life. Humans acquire moral rights through an obligation to make personal choices. The problem is that a fetus cannot make choices; although a fetus might have the potential, currently they do not have the capabilities (Kushner & Thomasma, 65).

Although it is easy to view strictly the rights of the mother and fetus, one primary contributor who is often overlooked is the father. Approximately half of unwanted pregnancies are unwanted by only one parent (Shannon, 38). Our society is slowly moving toward one that accepts the father as capable of providing care and nurture to a child. One case that specifically points to the capabilities of fathers is in the case of baby Jessica. The mother of baby Jessica gave her up for adoption, as well as the misinformed boyfriend that believed he was the father of Jessica. Then Jessica was adopted. When the real father found out about the existence of his daughter, he wanted the child and was granted custody (Callahan, 142). This directional shift also includes permitting a father to prevent an abortion based on the fact he wants to assume his obligation to the child. In allowing the father prevention, he must meet the condition that he will raise the child. If he does not meet this commitment then respect and assistance in prohibiting abortion are lost.

Abortion in Developing Countries

Although our country struggles with the abortion issue, in terms of right to life and a motherâs decision, abortion is forced upon individuals of other countries. During 1979 in China, to control population and decrease the chances of famine, the government adopted a plan that allowed families only one child (Callahan, 256). This plan was installed for every family, although under special circumstances a family might gain permission for more than one child. Along with sterilization and harmful contraceptives, abortion has been used to enforce government pressures. Sex selection, and more importantly female infanticide has become commonplace in this society due to the fact that males carry out the service of ancestral worship. The same is true in India where the government prohibits amniocentesis and abortion for sex selection (Callahan, 257). Some ãless valued developing societiesä try to reform economic and social conditions through the process of requiring young girls and women to tolerate these practices.

Conclusion

Abortion has maintained a controversial place throughout history in the United States, but it is really an individualâs beliefs that decided whether it is ethical or not. There are many things that contribute to our beliefs of the ethics of abortion. One of the determinants is our view of when life begins. This point of which life begins can range from the time of fertilization to the time of birth; this personal definition can also shape ideas of abortion. Another determinant is our view of the procedures themselves. We can also look at the obligations of the mother, fetus, and father to see where the obligations and rights to life are placed. Lastly, abortions in our country are chosen for various reasons, but in developing countries women are not given the decisions; even obligations are torn asunder due to the requirements of government. Each of these points contributes to the decision making process of the individual therefore playing a role in deciding the ethical nature of abortion.

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