Matthew Plank
11/5/03
Biology Senior Seminar
Dr. Stan Grove
Thesis: The idea of sustainable agriculture is a legitimate, logical, and
necessary approach to the new concerns and problems stemming from current agricultural
trends in light of impending global food shortages and rapid depletion of natural
resources.
Agriculture has been a principal
source of obtaining food to meet basic needs of humans for thousands
of years. More recently, with the industrialization
of agriculture, increased efficiency, and a decreased need for small
rural farmers,
there has been a resulting disconnect of consumers to the process
in which their food is produced. As we are embarking on a new century,
there
is growing concern that perhaps our industrialized agriculture system
is not functioning as effectively as it has in the past. It is time that
we
move to
adopt a new paradigm as we realize the effects of modern agriculture
on our environment, economic viability, and social justice issues, in light
of the
impending global
food shortage. According to John Ikerd from the University of Missouri,
traditional agriculturists currently foresee a continued trend toward
fewer, larger,
and more specialized production units. They see current trends continuing
until
a half-dozen or so multinational corporations control virtually all
processing and distribution of agricultural commodities in a single global
food
and
fiber market. With this movement continuing as it is now “there
will be increasing reliance on biological technologies and information
technologies at all levels
within the global agricultural system. Forecasts of the continued industrialization
of agriculture permeate both professional agricultural publications
and the popular farm press” (Sustainable
Agriculture).
Though these claims have some weight
there are some who think that we are on the verge of a paradigm shift in
how we view agriculture. Those concerned,
including some agriculturalists, those involved in education, and concerned
consumers,
foresee a future in agriculture that looks entirely different from the way
current trends are leading. Ikerd explains that there was a purpose for industrialization
of agriculture, but that it has come to the point where looking at continuing
with the current world view in agriculture undermines new issues that need
to
be addressed coming out of that movement. Some of these issues include: environmental
degradation, effects on rural communities, and the use of non renewable resources
that go beyond the energy used in photosynthesis to create the food we eat.
He argues that while there was a need for the industrialization it has now
fulfilled
its purpose and is time to move on (Sustainable
Agriculture). Those who are
involved in the movement away from the industrial notion of agriculture call
their new
approach “sustainable agriculture.” Sustainable agriculture encompasses
a variety of ideas and practices that are not all used by everyone in the movement,
but is a movement that “equitably balances concerns of environmental soundness,
economic viability, and social justice among all sectors of society” (Hassanein 3).
The idea of sustainable agriculture is a legitimate, rational, and necessary
approach to the new concerns and problems stemming from current agricultural
trends in light of impending global food shortages and rapid depletion of natural
resources.
In the early 1900’s the United
States was largely an agrarian society. Potential gains from industrializing
were too much to pass up for the society
as a whole. For the industrial revolution to take place and for the U.S. to
become modernized as we are today the shift to industrializing agriculture
had to take
place. At that time, close to half of the population was involved in agriculture.
There were tremendous human inputs required to provide for the food and clothing
that was necessary to maintain their way of living. With the industrialization
of agriculture, there was a chance for those working on the farms to move to
the cities and take jobs in the factories, and other commercial companies,
that helped the industrial movement. It also freed up capital
tied
up in agriculture to be used in other areas. This capital could then be used
to purchase the commodities produced by the emerging industrial economy. Industrialization
was able to feed more people better and at a lower cost (Sustainable
Agriculture).
Today less than two percent of Americans are farmers and industrial agriculture
is creating more problems than it solves (Sustainable
Agriculture). Times have
changed and we are no longer an agrarian society; it is time that our methods
change as well. With current methods of farming we are now facing threats to
the environment, rural communities, and to society as a whole. The technologies
and companies that have brought us to our current agricultural position are now
being scrutinized and are becoming a topic of concern among the general public.
At the same time that there have
been production increases in agriculture, there have also been large amounts
of external inputs required to create such results.
These external inputs come in the form of increased use of pesticides and chemicals,
environmental conditions, and threats to rural areas. There are also fuel inputs
for farm machinery and transportation of goods. For every one Calorie of
food produced there is a required five to ten calories invested for its production
and transportation.
The costs of improved production
are numerous. There has been contamination of water by pesticides, nitrates,
soil and livestock wastes, harm to wildlife,
disruption
of ecosystems, and decreased quality of drinking water. Pesticides and other
chemicals are increasingly being used to control insects and weeds, but is
also wreaking havoc on the natural systems surrounding the area. Pesticide
usage in
the 1980’s alone has increased from ten percent to thirty percent (Pretty 3). More recently pesticide and herbicide use has decreased because of the introduction
of Genetically Modified crops that contain, for example, genes for toxins that
keep several species of common insect predators from feeding on the crops. There
are also genes that can be inserted into crops that create a resistance to herbicides
minimizing inputs for weed control. The disruption of natural systems that GMO’s
create is another topic in itself, but increased plantings of GMO monocultures
leads to the displacement of traditional varieties and breeds (Pretty 4). The
pesticides and other chemicals, including fertilizers, run off of the fields
and get into water systems turning it into a health hazard. Problems with livestock
confinement and the waste they create is a concern as well. Manure from the
livestock is rich with nitrates, as is much of the fertilizer applied to fields.
When these
nitrates leach into the ground water and nearby streams, the water becomes
contaminated and has even been shown to be a cause of death to some infants
(Bird et al. 8).
Nitrates also disrupt aquatic habitats in that they encourage growth of algae
that block out sunlight necessary to the ecosystem living below the surface.
There is also contamination to the atmosphere from ammonia, nitrous oxide,
methane, and products of burning that are released into the air and contribute
to global
warming, ozone depletion, and overall air quality (Pretty 4).
Depletion of water reservoirs and depletion of our natural resources is a very
pressing and complex issue in the environmental realm. Agriculture uses three
times more water than commercial, industrial, and residential sectors of society
combined. This leads to ground water depletion and heated conflicts over water
rights, as well as a loss in certain fish species and other aquatic organisms
(Bird et al. 9). The use of non renewable resources for transportation purposes
and mechanical input is problematic in light of the current energy crisis and
our nations attempt to become less dependant on foreign oil to meet the energy
demands of the country. Billions of dollars are spent each year on the interstate
shipping of agricultural goods to consumers disconnected from agricultural processes.
Soil erosion and efforts to control
its causes have been addressed in part, but there is still much that could
be done to retain top soil. According to
Elizabeth
Bird et al., in the late 1980’s one quarter of U.S. cropland was eroding
fast enough to threaten long-term productivity. In Iowa, for example, in the
last 150 years there has been a loss of half of their topsoil (8). In the past,
when the farmer plowed his field the wind would be more apt to strip the loose
soil from the land and carry it elsewhere. There have been attempts to control
some of the erosion through land conservation programs and implementation of
practices meant to stabilize soil, such as leaving a cover crop on a field that
is not in use for a season or using no-till practices (not tilling to reduce
topsoil lost to wind). These practices have resulted in a decrease in overall
loss of topsoil, however, there are other problems that are created from such
practices, for example, increased pesticide use, increased runoff, increased
compaction of some types of soil, and reduced seedling emergence (Disadvantages…).
Effects of modern agriculture on rural areas
Farming changes at present are
largely driven by technology. This puts pressure on the rural farmer to purchase
bigger and faster machines, have an increased
reliance on pesticides and fertilizers, and increase energy inputs. This leads
to an increase in capital requirements, an increase in farm size, and a replacement
of farmer skill and management previously needed to raise a successful crop.
Chemical and energy inputs that are purchased off the farm become large expenses
that divert an increasing number of dollars away from the farm and create increasing
dependency on agribusiness (Bird et al. 9). Federal policy
is partly responsible for the current state of affairs of agriculture. Policies
in place encourage
larger farms, monocropping, larger equipment, manufactured chemicals, and conversion
of environmentally fragile land (like wetlands) into crop land (Bird et
al. 10). This encouragement of agribusiness only creates a bleaker situation
for the rural
farmer. With increased mechanization and technology there is less need for
people to farm because the machines can do the work more efficiently. With
the loss
of jobs and movement of farmers to the city there are detrimental affects on
the rural communities in which they live. As the farm families move away, rural
businesses that rely on them are forced out as well and whole towns become
abandoned and
desolate because without a market they cannot function. As farms become larger
there is more pressure to skip the local middle man to obtain inputs, and instead
purchase from the large agribusinesses because it is more efficient and necessary
to remain competitive.
What is the future of industrialized agriculture?
As discussed above there are some
very negative effects surrounding the current trends in agriculture. Some
still see continuing on this path a viable option,
claiming technology, information, and biological innovations will again lead
to an increase in production. This is perhaps putting too much faith in technology
to fix the impending world wide food crisis. Bringing technology that we have
to developing countries is not a very viable option for proceeding. They do
not have the knowledge, regulatory systems, or research abilities in place
to be
able to maintain an industrialized agriculture system with enormous amounts
of external inputs like the system we have in the U.S. (Why
so much controversy…).
Industrial agriculture has had its time and now is creating more problems than
it is eliminating. It does not seem like it will have a solution for increased
food production in the near future.
While acknowledging that conventional
agriculture offers certain benefits such as high levels of productivity,
sustainable agriculturalists point to
evidence
that the bountiful harvest has had adverse ecological, social, and economic
consequences that are destructive to both people and the land (Hassanein 4).
There is more
than one way to farm a section of land. Sustainable agriculture emerged in
the late 1970’s as a grassroots initiative looking to decrease use of
chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and work with nature instead of against
it. It deals
more with the concept of being stewards of the land and works with approaches
that preserve diversity, are flexible, and environmentally sound. Family farming
replaces chemical-intensive practices with on-farm resources, renewable energy,
conservation, and the skillful management of natural process (Bird et al. 10).
Agriculturalists are called to use their minds to find creative solutions to
solve the farming issues instead of dumping an ever increasing amount of chemicals
on their crops to fix the problems.
Issues surrounding sustainable
agriculture are being recognized by more and more people, but there are questions
by critics as to whether these small sustainable
farms will be able to compete with the much larger agriculture establishments.
Ikerd comments that there is a trend leading toward large industries tailoring
specialized products for niche markets as a maneuver that is going to be more
prevalent in the future . However, the advantage of being big comes from being
able to produce large amounts of the same basic things rather than from producing
small quantities of lots of different things. Large industries have come to
realize
that lucrative markets of the future lie in the niches, but most also recognize
that, as they target these markets, small firms and independent producers can
compete with them much easier. “Thus, we see large firms beginning to
decentralize, down-size, outsource, and otherwise begin to dismantle themselves
to forestall
their eventual competitive destruction by more flexible, innovative, creative,
dynamic, smaller competitors.” John Ikerd refers to Toffler, a noted
futurist, who refers to "mass
customization" as
only a "half-step" toward a future where wants and needs of consumers
are met individually” (Sustainable
Agriculture).
If this is true, the outlook for the sustainable farmer could be
prosperous. There is
also evidence that sustainable farmers, even with the decreased external inputs,
can
produce about the same crop yield as conventional farming practices, without
the outside cost of pesticides and other agrochemicals. According to Pretty,
“Sustainable agriculture involves the integrated use
of a variety of pest, nutrient, soil, and water management technologies and practices.
These are usually combined on farms to give practices finely tuned to the local
biophysical and socioeconomic conditions of individual farmers. Most represent
low-external input options. Most such farms are diverse rather than specialized
enterprises. Natural processes are favored over external inputs and by-products
or wastes from one component of the farm become inputs to another. In this way,
farms remain productive as well as reducing the impact on the environment” (Pretty 94).
Strategies
Farmers incorporate different strategies
to minimize their inputs and tailor those strategies to best fit their local
situation,
while attempting
to reduce
adverse effects on their environment. Some of these strategies
include practices such as planting greater crop diversity, cover
crops, soil-building
crops,
implementing crop rotation, intensely managed grazing systems,
light cultivation for weed
control, and integrating crops and livestock to encourage the
growth of each (Bird et al. 10-11). Often these strategies serve multiple
functions. An
example of one of these multifunctional strategies is the planting
of hedgerows. They
provide habitat to encourage natural predators that prey on the
harmful insects and also act as wind barriers that minimize soil
erosion.
Another example,
are legumes that are introduced into crop rotations to fix nitrogen.
They also act
as a “catch crop” to naturally help against disease and damage due
to pests. A third example, is to plant grass contour strips that serve to slow
surface runoff water and encourage percolation from the surface to ground water,
and are a source of food for livestock. Catch crops are also useful in the prevention
of soil erosion and leaching during times when it is crucial, and can also be
ploughed under and be beneficial as green manure. “Incorporation of green
manures not only provides a readily available source of nutrients for the growing
crop, but also increases soil organic matter and hence water retentive capacity,
further reducing susceptibility to erosion” (Pretty 94).
These are examples of creatively utilizing knowledge of ecological
systems
to minimize cost and
environmental impact instead of using high external inputs to
control pests, irrigate, and fertilize crops. Yet, there are
costs that
arise as the transition
to sustainable agriculture takes place. Education is necessary
to learn about a differing measures and practices. Current policy
promotes
non-adaptive
systems
with lower innovative capacity and farmers must learn how to
manage using natural ecological processes instead. During the
transition,
farmers
may incur costs
related to trial and error of experimentation with what works
best in their local setting (Pretty 96). In the long run, farmers
will
learn what works for
them
and be able to tweak processes and become even more efficient.
After several years they will have acquired the knowledge and
management skills
to compete
successfully with larger industrialized farmers.
Fossil fuel use would also decrease in a sustainable farming system. There
is an exhorbent amount of resources currently used in the transportation
of goods.
With the sustainable model the whole community would ideally be involved
in the farming process. Local residents would be more involved and relationships
would
be built with the farmers and would consequently create more of a local market
for the produce being grown in the area. This in turn would greatly decrease
the amount of capital put into transportation of products while also promoting
positive community dynamics and fostering relationships. Rural farms and
communities would be able to thrive while being able to more efficiently
produce with less
impact on the environment.
Presently, some sustainable farmers have found a niche in the food market
where they have found a contingency that is will to pay a slightly higher
price for
a better quality product produced with fewer harmful chemicals and a more
sustainable process. This kind of community support is necessary if the sustainable
approach
is to work. This leads into the concept of CSA, or community supported agriculture.
In this practice community members pay a certain amount up front at the beginning
of the season for the purchase of the goods, taking a risk along with the
farmer that the crop may not produce the expected yield and helping to incur
some of
that cost. This also builds relationships in the community and keeps members
connected to where their food is coming from and the process in which it
is produced.
If present trends in agriculture
continue the future looks bleak for a century concerned about global food
shortages and rapid consumption of resources.
Sustainable agriculture offers a viable alternative to current practices
that are environmentally
degrading, socially unjust, and economically unsound. With sustainable
agriculture there can be a collaboration of consumers and producers to create
a product
that is created far more efficiently with benefits to rural communities,
the environment,
the economy, and to society as a whole. It is a more creative way to
approach problems in agriculture than our conventional practices and the
rewards of
such a revolutionary system would be numerous and beneficial for a
host of problems
that face the world today. It is the ethical choice for those of us
concerned with the well-being of future generations and the rural communities
today.
Hassanein, Neva. Changing the Way America Farms. University of Nebraska Press,
Lincoln, 1999.
Bird, Elizabeth Ann R., et al. Planting the Future. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, 1995.
Pretty, Jules N. Regenerating Agriculture. Joseph Henry Press, Washington
D.C., 1995.
“Why
so much controversy over Genetically Modified Organisms?” October 25,
2003. <http://www.cimmyt.cgiar.org/ABC/10-FAQaboutGMOs/htm/10-FAQaboutGMOs.htm>.
Ikerd,
John. "Sustainable
Agriculture: A Positive Alternative to Industrial Agriculture" October
25, 2003 <http://www.ssu.missouri.edu/faculty/jikerd/papers/ks-hrtld.htm >.
“Disadvantages of No-Till” October
25, 2003. <http://pas.byu.edu/AgHrt282/Tillage/sld023.htm>