Issues Within
the Discipline of Forestry
Shawn Slaubaugh
Biology Senior Seminar
Fall, 2003
Stan Grove
Thesis:
While forestry is a legitimate field of study that is needed in todayís world,
there are a number of areas such as, the types of forestry, impacts of
forestry, and the use of fire in forestry, that need to be addressed in order
to make forestry healthier.
I.
Introduction
A.
What is forestry?
1.
Definition
2.
Assumptions of
forestry
A.
History of
forestry in
A.
Logging
B.
Alternative
forest resources
C.
Recreation
III.
Impacts of Forestry
A.
Habitat
destruction
B.
Soil
1.
Erosion
2.
Packing of soil
C.
Roads
A.
History of forest
fires and philosophical differences
B.
Ecologically
friendly or catastrophic
A.
Sustainable
forestry
B.
Is it possible?
C.
How do we do it?
VI.
Conclusion
In the book Balancing Act: Environmental
Issues in Forestry, the author defines forestry as, "The art, science,
and practice of managing forested landscapes to provide a sustained production
of a variety of goods and services for society" (Kimmins, 1992, p.48). This definition is contradictory
to the way in which the majority of North Americans view forestry. Most people
think of a forester as a person who carries around a chain saw wearing a hard
hat, and cutting down any tree they can. The public does not have a full understanding
of what the discipline of forestry entails. Instead of only cutting down trees
one by one without paying attention to the healthiness of the forest, foresters
strive to promote a balanced sustainable management of all resources in the
forest (Kimmins, 1992). However,
while the objective of forestry is to manage the resources in a sustainable
way, there are still some areas that are being exploited. While forestry is
a legitimate field of study that is needed in todayís world, there are a number
of areas such as; the types of forestry practiced, impacts of forestry, and
the use of fire in forestry, that need to be addressed in order to partake
in healthy forestry.
The idea of forestry in the sense that
we know it today is only about four hundred years old. Forestry developed
mainly out of the need for a continual supply of wood products. There were
a few forest reserves for hunting or preservation in
After this initial stage of carelessness
is recognized there is a stage of regulation in order to make certain that
the forests will be maintained for resources and other values. This is the
point where the idea of forestry begins. Hamish Kimmins in his book Balancing Act: Environmental Issues
in Forestry states this about the second stage, "It usually involves
a centralized, authoritarian, non-ecological, administrative approach based
on legislation and regulation rather than on a knowledge of how forests grow,
how they respond to management, and how ecosystems function" (Kimmins, 1992, p.50). This administrative approach usually
ends up failing, and there is recognition that management will only work if
techniques that are in tune with the ecological characteristics of the area
are taken into account. This stage was evident in the
The third stage is the promotion of
an ecologically sound method to forestry. This stage also takes into account
the sustainable management of forest resources other than trees. This stage
was reached in the middle of this century when a number of ecologically minded
laws were passed, such as the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960, and
the National Forest Management Act of 1976. The final stage is the same as
the third stage but it also takes into account the desires of the communities
around the forest often being called social forestry. The author puts it like
this, "A much wider range of resource values is managed than in stage
three, including aesthetics, spiritual values, and wilderness" (Kimmins, 1992, p.50). This is the point that we in the
The most common thing that people think
of when they hear about forestry is logging. It makes sense if you think about
it. Obviously the first thing that will come to a persons mind when they hear
the word forest is trees. However, forestry and forests cannot be so narrowly
defined. A definition of forestry was already given above, but what is a forest?
John Berger in his book Understanding Forests states, "A forest
is a totality of interdependent organisms and their interrelationships, along
with the place where they exist, the physical structures that support them,
and the chemical compounds they use and exchange" (Berger,
1998, p.1). So, while trees are the most dominant and visibly defining characteristics
of a forest, the definition is much deeper, encompassing all the interactions
that take place within this tree dominated area.
When a person gets into the subject
of logging, they are getting into a touchy subject with many complicated facets.
A positive definition of forestry was given in the introduction to illustrate
the desired outcome of the field; however, many people would define forestry
as it pertains to logging as industrial forestry. Berger clarifies this title
saying, "Industrial forestry as a distinctive type of forestry tends
to operate on a capital-intensive agricultural model emphasizing commodity
production of trees rather than protection of the forest as an ecological
unit" (Berger, 1998, p.67). The industrial forester
views the forest in terms of its monetary value. There is no thought given
to the impact their work will have on the landscape, unless the disappearance
of biological well-being and diversity affects the monetary value they receive
in the short run. There are a number of ways in which the industrial forester
harvests his/her trees, some of them having a larger impact on the ecosystem
than others (Berger, 1998, p.67-70).
When participating in any kind of forestry
it is essential to follow a forest management plan. This plan points out the
desired outcome of the management for a forest. Two such strategies, which
are taken into account when logging trees, are even-age management and un-even
age management. Even-age produces an area of forest that is uniform in tree
age, while uneven-aged management yields different ages of trees across the
landscape (Berger, 1998).
The first type of logging mechanism
which is put under the uneven-aged management plan is the selective cut. With
this strategy particular trees are designated for removal by the forester
in accordance with standards obtained from a long range management plan. There
are many ways to go about doing a selective cut, some of which have positive
and negative effects. For example, a forester could choose to cut out any
sick or flawed trees giving the healthy trees more space to grow. Or, one
could select out the largest and most valuable trees. Finally, a forester
could select some trees from each category in order to ensure a healthy future
crop (Berger, 1998).
Selective cutting can be very tricky.
If it is done very carefully and thoughtfully it can be a very positive thing.
For example, if the forester chooses trees from every category, diseased,
healthy, and valuable it will allow the future offspring to be prosperous.
However, a lot of times this type of cut is not applied correctly resulting
in high grading. This happens when the forester selects only the highest quality
trees to be cut, which in turn leaves no healthy genes for future generations.
Over time the timber quality will decline sharply. Additionally, because selective
cutting requires logging crews to re-enter the area so many times, the end
result a lot of times can be injured trees, packed soil and erosion (Berger,
1998). This method is possibly the least controversial method, with the highest
possibility for healthy forest management.
A second type of logging cut is the
patch cut. This type of cut also produces an uneven-aged type of management.
In the patch cut, the forester divides the forest into equal parts and cuts
each block at a consistent interval. This produces a number of even aged patches
which forms a range of trees from young to old throughout the forest. This
allows the foresters to cut at a fairly fast interval because there is always
a stand of trees ready to be cut. This cut allows for forest heterogeneity
because it incorporates a range of young to old trees. There is one major
disadvantage to this type of cut. It creates what is called edge effects.
Edge effect is what happens when forest meets a newly exposed patch cut. Because
the cut happened in the middle of the forest, it creates a four sided exposure
for the forest that is still intact. This leaves the forest vulnerable to
wind, drying, and harmful species (Berger, 1998).
The third type of cut is known as the
shelterwood cut. John Berger describes the cut this
way, "A shelterwood cut removes most of the
forest areaís trees but leaves a thinned overstory to protect young seedlings from overexposure to
sun, wind, frost, or a combination of these influences" (Berger,
1998, p.75). When the new age group of trees are big enough and do not rely
on the protection of the overstory, the loggers come back to cut down the canopy. This
type of cut leaves an even aged forest (Berger, 1998).
A fourth type of logging procedure is
the seed tree cut. With this cut all trees are removed besides a few mature
trees left behind to disperse seed in order to produce a new tree crop. This
cut gives little in terms of shelter and after their purpose has been fulfilled
loggers come and take down the trees, leaving behind a stand of young trees
that are even in age (Berger, 1998). For the last two
types of cuts some people would say that a disadvantage they have is that
they are basically a clearcut with a few trees left behind to make it look more
appealing.
The final logging technique is the most
controversial one called clearcutting. Berger defines
clearcutting like this, "Clearcutting
is the removal of all trees on a site and the consequent loss of forest conditions,
such as the influences (shade, habitat, shelter...etc.) of the forest canopy
and roots on the soil and forest floor" (Berger,
1998, p.86). Clearcutting is generally thought of
in a negative light by environmental groups and as a legitimate tool by logging
companies. There are a number of situations where clearcutting
may be legitimate and where it is not. One time when clearcutting
may be warranted is if a disease has infected a large stand of trees. If the
trees are not cut down then the disease will continue to spread and infect
a larger area. So, loggers would salvage the trees by clearcutting, and it would hopefully stop the disease. On
the other hand, clearcutting should not be used
on steep mountainsides where erosion would become a big problem (Berger,
1998). There are many more negative effects of clearcutting
which will be touched upon later in the paper.
While touching on the logging aspect
of forestry in this last section mostly negative aspects were focused upon.
However, this is not to say that people do not partake in ecologically sustainable
logging. There are many people who undertake logging of private lands on a
small scale by using ecologically friendly methods.
The second aspect of forestry is alternative
forest resources also known as non-timber forest products (NTFP). A general
definition of NTFP is any non-wood product within a forest that does or could
possibly have marketable value. Two critical factors that need to be accounted
for when thinking about NTFP are that a lot of the time the species with marketable
value are the same species that have cultural and ecological significance.
An example could be some native tribal groups that are still thriving in the
world. For the most part they make their living off the land, hunting and
gathering. If we come along and over harvest some species, then their culture
will have nothing to live off of (Non Timber, 2003).
So what are some of the products in
this category? Some of the most beneficial products are medicinal products.
The medicine taxol, which comes from the Pacific
yew, helps to treat cancer. Quinine, from the Cinchona tree species, is used
to remedy malaria, and digitalis, from foxglove, which helps with heart disease
(Berger, 1998). Another popular NTFP is Maple syrup.
Some others to mention include wild mushrooms, berries, honey, cones, ferns,
and moss.
The final aspect of forestry is forest
based recreation so that people can enjoy the beauty of the land. The objective
of forest based recreation is to maintain the natural appearance and quality
of the natural environment in which recreational activities take place. The
objectives are defined in terms of the desired outputs of recreation experiences.
So, a particular area is managed according to what type of recreation is going
on there. Having many people recreating in one area can be hard on the environment
just like logging can be hazardous to the ecosystem. So, foresters treat the
impacts of people like they would the impacts of logging. They try and monitor
the impact that people have, and when necessary modify and regulate in order
to counter a negative impact (Minter, 2002).
Switching gears now, itís time to focus
on some of the impacts that forestry can have when it is not done in a way
that is ecologically friendly. One impact that results from un-healthy forestry
is the loss of animal habitat. The cause of this loss is the clearcut. Imagine that you are a Black Bear living in the
middle of a forest that is about to be clearcut. This area has been your home all of your life. You
have hunted here and hibernated here. Then, suddenly there are huge machines
barreling through your home and you sprint out of there. Being a bear at the
top of the food chain you already have to expend a lot of energy during your
days. Now you have to sprint for miles to get away from the horror. Additionally,
you are in new territory. You are unfamiliar with this terrain, and you have
to compete with others for food. Life has suddenly become much harder.
This is just a little illustration of
what it might be like for an animal whose home is destroyed. When a forest
is clearcut diversity is reduced significantly.
The loss of habitat not only affects the animal itself, but it also affects
the animals that are dependent upon this animal. It creates another domino
effect for struggling organisms. From clearcutting,
this once intricate forest and all the relationships it sustained, is reduced
to a very small number of creatures. Furthermore, this simplified forest burial
ground becomes very vulnerable to disease. The author John Berger gives this
example, "Without old standing dead trees, for example, woodpeckers that
normally thrive on forest insects will be virtually absent from the new plantation,
so a bark beetle invasion may wreck havoc on the new trees" (Berger,
1998, p.92). Logging is not the only thing that destroys habitat. Later on
the subject of fire will be brought up, and if it is good or bad.
The second impact that unhealthy forestry
can have on the forest is poor soil quality. This impact comes mainly from
logging, but it also results more discretely from recreation. When there is
logging going on in a forest, there are huge trucks and logging machines that
go through and compact the soil. Berger points it out like this, "Compaction
makes it harder for tree roots to penetrate the soil and reduces soil pore
spaces, which contain oxygen needed by soil microorganisms that make organic
and inorganic matter available for uptake by trees and other vegetation"
(Berger, 1998, p.93). The same happens with people when they
are camping at campsites in parks. There is so much traffic in one area that
the ground is compacted. This also leads to water not being able to be absorbed
into the ground which in turn leads to erosion.
The last impact of unhealthy forestry
is roads. In order to make possible the sale of wood products, the Forest
Service has built 386,000 miles of roads in the United States National Forests.
This is a length that is nine times that of the interstate highway system,
and enough to go around the globe fifteen times. A statement in a Mother
Jones article illustrates how hurtful roads are, "Short of replacing
forests with asphalt and concrete, nothing humans do to them, even clearcutting,
is more hurtful than road building" (Williams
76). Roads create a large number of problems such as weaken the soils, which
in turn creates erosion leading to landslides, pollution of streams and lakes,
and submerging the reproduction habitat for fish. Road culverts that need
to be constructed to direct water flow under roads are blocking fish movement.
Ted Williams in his article in Mother
Jones states, "In the Tongass, for instance, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game
estimates that 66 percent of the culverts may be blocking salmon and 85 percent
may be blocking trout" (Williams, 2002, p.76).
Also, the road systems split up animal habitats, eradicating animals that
need large areas of undeveloped land. Finally the roads provide easy access
to people who kill and drive off animals, and develop the land that has immeasurable
value in its aesthetics and wildlife (Williams, 2002).
Now it is time to switch gears and talk about the controversial subject of
fire within forests.
Fire is something that has always been
a part of forestry. It can be used as a tool, or it can happen as a result
of nature. There has long been a battle raging about whether fires are a good
thing or a bad thing. This debate has its roots back in the year 1910 when
there was a fire in
It wasnít until 1972 that this dominating
idea was challenged. A number of radical forest service workers thought that
fire was an ecologically friendly phenomenon. They backed their idea up with
some research, and then developed some criteria for letting a fire burn and
for fighting it if something went wrong. In 1973 they got their fire and they
allowed it to burn. The fire just crept along to the point where the men could
walk through it. It would eventually burn itself out as well. The site was
revisited in 2002 by the men and they were amazed at what they saw. One of
the men was quoted saying, "It was the first time Iíve ever seen a forest
working the way a natural forest should work" (Trachtman, 2003). This experiment marked a profound change
in the philosophy of forest fires. Since then there have been many fires that
have started and just burnt themselves out. From this example it shows that
the only reason that fires have been considered so catastrophic is because
of the bad management practices that have been going on since 1910. Fires
are a natural and ecologically friendly phenomenon. They allow more plants
to thrive that can only germinate with intense heat. If we continue to allow
small controlled fires to burn like we used to, we will not have to worry
about catastrophic fires in the future.
So far this paper has tried to point
out where our current system of forestry is at, and some problems and some
good things about it. Now it is time to decide what healthy forestry is, and
how we will get there. When the phrase healthy forestry is brought up one
thinks about a balance between the ecological processes going on and the maintaining
of the forests ability to produce resources needed from the forest. This is
the same thing as sustainable forestry. John Berger, in his book Understanding
Forests, describes sustainable forestry as, "Ecological forest management
that maintains a forestís capacity to produce a stable and perpetual yield
of timber and other goods and services" (Berger, 1998). In sustainable forestry everything in the forest
needs to be safeguarded because all living organisms living within the forest
have a part to play ecologically (Berger, 1998).
So how do we accomplish this? It seems
almost impossible to successfully implement sustainable forestry. As long
as we are working in forests and still cutting them down for resources, wonít
there still be pressures that degrade the forest? Furthermore, with the rate
at which the population is growing, how will we be able to participate in
sustainable forestry in the future? These are some of the questions that scientists
are asking at this point. The only available answer is to do the best that
we can right now.
Sustainable forestry starts with good
management and economic sustainability. The goal of the forest manager needs
to be, harvest less than the annual growth rate while improving upon the quality
of the forest. To improve upon the forest quality one needs to use the selective
cutting method and choose all kinds of trees to be cut, not just the healthy
ones. This will allow future generations to be healthy and strong as well.
The sustainable foresterís thinking needs to be not what to take from the
forest, but what needs to be left there. In terms of management of costs sustainable
forestry needs to be the opposite of plantation management. Berger puts it
like this, "In plantation management, costs are hidden and deferred to
the next rotation or human generation. In sustainable forestry . . . there
are no hidden, deferred costs; it is pay-as-you-go forestry that more closely
follows Natureís blueprint for maintaining a self-repairing, self-sustaining
forest" (Berger, 1998).
From this description of sustainable
forestry and thinking back to some of the above statements about where forestry
is right now, it is obvious that some things need to change. Loggers need
to stop paying so much attention to productivity in terms of money and start
focusing more on the ecological effects of their operations. The roads and
clearcutting are destroying forest ecosystems. If
we are to move toward sustainable forestry, clearcutting
needs to end and roads need to be minimized. Additionally fires need to be
allowed to burn more frequently so fuels do not build up leading to more catastrophic
destruction of forests.
There is sustainable forestry taking
place right now as well. It is taking place in a movement called forest certification.
This is the idea that people will be willing to pay more money for wood products
if they know that it was produced in a way that was environmentally and socially
acceptable. A certified forest company must adhere to standards that are made
to protect all the interactions of the forest, as well as respecting the rights
of the neighboring communities. In order to insure that the products are certified
the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) accredits certifying organizations. If
there is an FSC label on a product it means that it was produced in an environmentally
sound way (Berger, 1998).
This paper has attempted to illustrate
the different types of forestry, the impacts of forestry and the use of fire
in forestry. By describing the point at which these areas are at we are able
to correct possible mistakes in forestry and move toward sustainable forestry.
In my own personal opinion, I think the discipline of forestry is something
that is extremely important and relevant to our society. You can see this
from the amount of wood products that you have going into building a house
and then furnishing it. When you think about it, forests are one of the few
resources that actually have the potential to be sustainable. I would make
the argument that we should not slow the production of forest resources for
the simple fact that it can be done in a sustainable way.
This brings me to another point. While
Forests are home to many resources that are useful, and the need to harvest
them is of utmost importance, the fact still remains that these forests are
valuable ecosystems that need to be kept healthy. Thus, the need for healthy
forestry practices that maintain forest health while harvesting resources
is of primary concern. I feel like we are on the right track towards accomplishing
this.
Works Cited
Berger,
John. (1998). Understanding Forests. Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data.
Kimmins, Hamish.
(1992). Balancing Act: Environmental Issues in Forestry.
Minter,
Bill. (
Non Timber Forest Products. Institute for Culture and Ecology.
Williams, Ted. (2002) A Crossroad for Wilderness.
Mother Jones 27.5, 75-79, 92-3.