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Cloning is an exciting and ongoing field of study with many great possibilities, and negative drawbacks; this leaves many Christians wrestling with the idea of cloning, trying to decide where to stand on, for or against it. To follow, in the paper is an explanation of what cloning is and the uses of cloning at the present and projected in the future. After that the focus will be on the problems with cloning from a non-ethical stance. Finally the issue of cloning and Christian’s views on it will be addressed.

What is Cloning?

DNA Cloning

Cloning, upon first hearing the word cloning, the thought of Dolly the sheep pops into the mind. The first and most used type of cloning though is not the type that creates animals, but rather DNA cloning. “Cloning is an umbrella term that science uses to indicate the duplication of biological material.”(Human Genome Project) Cloning is further broken down into three categories. The first is DNA cloning, which is the replication of DNA strands. DNA cloning is usually the process of getting a cell to replicate a desired gene for us. DNA cloning has been used since the 1970’s and has persisted as an effective cheap means of replicating DNA of interest in a foreign host cell. “To "clone a gene," a DNA fragment containing the gene of interest is isolated from chromosomal DNA using restriction enzymes and then united with a plasmid that has been cut with the same restriction enzymes.”(Human Genome Project) Plasmids are not part of the chromosome but they replicate along with the cell when it replicates and divides. Since they are not a part of the chromosome they are easier to isolate and manipulate without affecting the cells function. “When the fragment of chromosomal DNA is joined with its cloning vector in the lab, it is called a "recombinant DNA molecule." Following introduction into suitable host cells, the recombinant DNA can then be reproduced along with the host cell DNA.”(Human Genome Project)

Reproductive Cloning

The second is reproductive cloning; this is the process of replicating new living organisms. As mentioned earlier Dolly is the most famous of the cloned organisms, but there were many before and after her. In 1952 a tadpole was cloned, the first clone ever. (Human Genome Project) Dolly was the first mammal ever cloned. After Dolly other animals such as sheep, goats, cows, mice, pigs, cats, rabbits, and a guar have been cloned. Some animals are more resistant to the procedure used for cloning. The process used is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. This process is used to create an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another animal. They are not identical in the strictest sense the mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA comes from the egg. The “acquired mutations found in the mitochondrial DNA are believed to play an important role in the aging process.”(Human Genome Project) The process starts by removing all the genetic information from an unfertilized egg with an extremely small needle. Then an adult cell is taken from the donor. The genetic material is removed from the cell and implanted in the now empty embryo. Then the cell is treated with chemicals or an electric current to cause it to start to divide. Once it reaches a certain size it is implanted into a host uterus where it continues to grow until birth. It was originally thought that once a cell had differentiated in a certain way it couldn’t differentiate into anything else. Dolly proved that any cell can be taken and with the right reprogramming it can be made to express the other parts of the gene that were previously turned off and unexpressed. Scientists believe that the high rate of mortality found in this type of cloning is due to incompleteness in the reprogramming process. (Human Genome Project)

Therapeutic Cloning

The final and not fully defined type is therapeutic cloning; this is the process of cloning select cells that are able to become desired organs or tissues depending on how they are manipulated. Therapeutic cloning also goes by the name embryo cloning or stem cell research. This is the manipulation of embryos for use in research. They don’t want to use this process to grow people; it is just to harvest stem cells to study human development and attempt new remedies for disease. Stem cells are nifty because they are capable of generating into any of the specialized cells in the body. November 2001 saw the first embryo ever cloned for the purpose of stem cell research. They collected eggs from women’s ovaries. The genetic material is then removed with a needle less than one five thousandths of an inch wide. Then the genetic material from a skin cell is inserted into the embryo. The embryo is then allowed to divide for five days. The embryo is destroyed and the stem cells extracted. These stem cells are then taken and after the chemical ionomycin is applied, they are implanted in the region of desired growth. (Human Genome Project) This means that they can be implanted in bones for instance to treat leukemia, and can help regenerate the lost and damaged bone marrow, or Alzheimer’s, cancer, and heart disease. This procedure is still in the developmental stages and has not had much success yet. The above descriptions are of cloning and the processes involved in creating a clone, but the explanations only touched briefly on the benefits and uses of cloning.

Uses of Cloning

DNA Cloning

The uses for the different types of cloning are almost as different as the types of cloning themselves. For instance DNA cloning is an important part of understanding and advancing other areas of science such as gene therapy, genetic engineering of organisms, and sequencing genomes. With gene therapy this technique is used to find and replace faulty genetic conditions “by introducing virus vectors that carry corrected copies of faulty genes into the cells of a host organism.”(Human Genome Project) This is also a method of genetic engineering providing an avenue through which plants and animals can be modified to taste better, be more nutritious, or become resistant to diseases and pests. Also by manipulating different short segments of DNA, it is possible to figure out the intricate DNA sequence of a gene. This is a popular, easy and inexpensive method used by scientists.

Reproductive Cloning

Reproductive cloning on the other hand is quite different. It is unreliable, expensive and largely unsuccessful. The potential is there though for it to become a highly effective means of reproducing desired animals. There would be a possibility to efficiently generate lab animals that produce needed medicines or that have desired traits. Cloning of desired animals for consumption or breeding purposes is also another possibility. For example, an extraordinary specimen of a species can be cloned so that offspring with the same traits can be generated long after the original animal has passed away. The most promising outlook for reproductive cloning though is the idea of preserving endangered species. The first cloned endangered species was a guar, a wild ox of Asia. The animal lived 48 hours and then died of an infection in 2001. The same year Italian scientist cloned a mouflon, a European mountain sheep. The sheep survived and is living in a sanctuary in Sardinia. (Human Genome Project) There are several other animals that are already prioritized if this method can be proved effective. Not all animals are equally receptive to this process. Some even seem resistant to the somatic cell nuclear transfer process; it is thought that the techniques need to be improved before some species can be attempted. The idea of cloning extinct animals still poses a challenge in that it would be difficult to find a mother to carry the young to full term.

Therapeutic Cloning

The final form of cloning, therapeutic cloning is still a vastly developing field. The potential in this field is astronomical if it can be developed. The possibility is to grow entire organs from single cells, grown to match the recipient. No need for one life to end to support another as in organ transplants, and a reduced chance of rejection, since you could grow the organ from the recipients own cells. Also degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s might be cured if the damaged cells can be replaced with healthy cells grown in the lab. Cancers like leukemia could be fought better with the help of stem cells, bone marrow transplants could be easier as you wouldn’t need a donor to supply the bone marrow needed for the transplant. While there are a lot of possibilities for cloning there are a lot of problems with it too.

Problems with Cloning

DNA Cloning

The problems exist mainly with reproductive and therapeutic cloning; DNA cloning has virtually no down sides. DNA cloning is a well defined field where the methods have been refined and the process is well known. This makes the process cheap and successful in labs.

Reproductive Cloning

Reproductive cloning on the other hand is not as well established and the methods used are still fairly primitive; more than ninety percent of the attempts to clone end in failure. On average it takes more than one hundred nuclear transfers to get one viable clone. Aside from the complications of just getting the clone to the viable stage there are many conditions that exist once the animal is born. More than thirty percent of the animals born have deficient immune systems, higher rates of infection, tumor growth, general bad health, early death and other disorders. Many are born abnormally large and mysterious deaths surround these cloned animals. “For example, Australia's first cloned sheep appeared healthy and energetic on the day she died, and the results from her autopsy failed to determine a cause of death.”(Human Genome Project) They discovered that about four percent of genes in mice function abnormally. “The abnormalities do not arise from mutations in the genes but from changes in the normal activation or expression of certain genes.”(Human Genome Project)

Therapeutic Cloning

Even beyond the complications of reproductive cloning, therapeutic cloning is still trying to get off the ground. The closest anyone has come at this point to cloning an organ is six cells. So the whole idea of developing an entire organ free of an individual has a long ways to go and many more stumbling blocks to over come. Scientists have allowed cloned embryos to develop and harvested the kidneys from the developing fetuses, and they were then implanted into adult cows. (West) This would raise major ethical issues if this process were used on humans. Breeding human fetuses to harvest the organs would not sit well with most people. In 2002 a British biotechnology company claimed that they had created a pig that didn’t have any of the genes that caused transplant rejection. This holds the possibility that organs could be grow in pigs and harvested for human use. ( Ayares) This is largely untested and attempts to verify its success could pose health problems, not to mention the use of pigs excludes certain ethnic groups from transplants. Also there are many ethical problems with the harvesting of cells from a developing embryo for many religious groups. Oddly it has been found that stem cells from umbilical cords and mature adults are more effective and have been cultured. Adult stem cells have been used to treat Parkinson’s patients with apparently successful results. ( Levesque) So by using the adult tissue or umbilical cord stem cells, there is no need to destroy large numbers of growing embryos. This leads to the question of why so much effort and time is being put into a controversial unproven method when a proven, effective method has already been found. These are the issues that are major concerns for the general public and in particular, Christians.

Christian Views on Cloning

Nothing Wrong With Some Cloning

The Christians that have a full understanding of cloning are not usually opposed to all of it. (Focus on the Family) They are in support of medical advancements, such as insulin production by cloning the insulin producing gene in bacteria and allowing them to produce insulin for us at low cost and high efficiency. They are fine with it being used to improve our food supply and its nutritional value. Most support gene mapping and gene therapy to help improve the quality of life. Most Christian groups are not opposed to DNA cloning and in fact identify it as a useful tool. Most don’t see a problem with cloning animals as long as it is done safely and humanely. If the quality of life and health can be improved for the animals then there doesn’t seem to be a problem with it. They maintain that there is a distinct difference between animals and humans, both through fundamental differences and those ordained by the Word of God.

Separation of Humans and Animals

With an understood difference, Christian organizations do not hold that animals and people should be treated in the same way. They hold that it is unethical to clone humans, especially if the clones are going to suffer any of the same fates as some of the animals cloned. The general stance on reproductive cloning is that if done humanely then it should be allowed for animals, but not for humans. The main reason for this is the uncertainty of how a clone would be treated. Most hold life sacred from the moment of conception or the moment the cell begins to divide. So the idea of using clones to harvest organs is repulsive and stem cell research is a sore area also. As Dr. David DeWitt of Answers in Genesis states:

“As a biologist, however, I must point out that once a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the genetic blueprint of a unique human being is established. The fertilized egg soon begins the process of dividing into the cells of the embryo. A researcher must destroy this embryo in order to harvest stem cells. This embryo is not just ‘potential’ life. Scientifically speaking, there is really no debate—even at this early stage, the embryo can be identified as human, with exactly the same number and type of chromosomes as any human. Further, if the embryos were not alive, the stem cells harvested from them would be useless in research!”(2002)

Destruction of Embryos is Wrong

The Christian groups that see abortion as the taking of life are also against the destruction of embryos for stem cell research. The embryos are induced to start dividing and then after they reach a certain size they are destroyed and the stem cell removed. Christians see nothing wrong with stem cell research when the cells come from other places. Stem cells have been show to improve life for those suffering from Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s disease. Focus on the Family was quoted in its article, Frequently Asked Questions: Human Cloning, as saying:

“A steady flow of published research indicates great promise in the area of so-called “adult” or non-embryonic stem cell sources. Even more, therapies using stem cells from sources such as bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, and the pancreas have already successfully treated patients with conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, and multiple sclerosis. These direct therapeutic benefits to patients demonstrate that advancements using adult stem cells surpass any animal research currently underway using embryonic stem cells.”(2004)

The fact that stem cells can be collected from umbilical cords and from adult donors makes it hard to justify to Christians why embryos are need to supply the stem cells. The courts still have not resolved when a baby is considered human and when it is just a growth in the mother, how can we expect a ruling on clones? Would they receive the same rights or be viewed as a growth from the originals genetic material? They are the equivalent to an identical twin years removed from their parent. The major concern is that the clone receives the same rights and consideration as any other human.

Defeats Original Purpose of Family, Endangering the Child Conceived

Some Christians maintain that cloning endangers the family and the child. It would allow people to have children without ever having to have a partner, and give people the ability to make copies of themselves. Aside from the child growing up without the balancing influence of both parents, this endangers the child in that the parent will have expectations for the child to become the person they are cloned from. The child, although identical in likeness, will be different in personality and temperament. The outside influences on their life will cause them to have different world views, not to mention the fact of knowing that they are a clone, which could have a large impact on their life. Since life is replaceable, some might believe that it is disposable as well. If the child does not meet their expectations will the parents discard it and try again until they get what they want? It took hundreds of attempts to get Dolly the sheep; think of the trauma a parent would go through having that many failures before being slightly successful (as Dolly still did not live a full healthy life.) Focus on the Family writer Carrie Gordon Earll writes on the matter:

“In procreation, humans participate with God in creating new life. This offspring not only reflects the likeness of the Creator, but also carries the blended DNA of two separate individuals: a mother and a father. Cloning intentionally produces a genetic copy of one existing individual, questioning the uniqueness of the clone. Procreation reveals that God intends us to be unprecedented individuals. Human cloning contradicts this basic truth of our creation by attempting to create man in our own image, rather than in Gods.”(2004)

Conclusion

In conclusion, cloning is an exciting and ever growing field of study, one of complexities both in and out of the lab. It has great possibilities and promise, but some of the negative drawbacks have left Christians wrestling with this procedure. With a better understanding of what cloning is and the benefits and drawbacks involved, it appears that Christians can for the most part have a unified stance on the subject: Some cloning is acceptable when humanely applied to animals, but that the cloning of humans is wrong.

Cited References

Ayares, David. Male knockout pigs are the next key milestone towards providing an unlimited source of insulin-producing cells for diabetes and animal organs for human transplantation (PPL Therapeutics, Inc Press Release). Retrieved November 28, 2004, from http://www.revivicor.com/MaleKOrelease.htm

Carrie Gordon Earll, (2004). Bioethics/Sanctity of Human Life-Cloning/Stem Cell Research. Focus on the Family. Retrieved October 3, 2004 from: http://www.family.org/cforum/fosi/bioethics/cloning/a0027740.cfm

Carrie Gordon Earll, (2004). Bioethics/Sanctity of Human Life- Frequently Asked Questions: Human Cloning. Focus on the Family. Retrieved October 3, 2004 from: http://www.family.org/cforum/fosi/bioethics/faqs/a0027184.cfm

DeWitt, David, (2002). Cloning misinformation—Dr DeWitt’s rebuttal. Answers in Genesis. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from: http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/0430dewitt_response.asp

Ham, K., Looy, M., (2004). The scientific and Scriptural case against human cloning. Answers in Genesis. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from: http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2001/1127cloning.asp

Human Genome Project Information (2004). Cloning Fact Sheet. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science. Retrieved October 3, 2004 from: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml

Levesque, Michel. Treating Parkinson’s with Adult Stems Cell and Other Alternatives (Results presented April 8 th, at the meeting of the American Association of Neurological Surgeons). Retrieved November 28, 2004, from http://www.stemcellresearch.org/stemcellreport/scr-2002-spring.htm

West, Michael D. (2002). Researchers Report First Evidence That Nuclear Transplantation (“Therapeutic Cloning”) Can Eliminate Tissue Rejection. (Advanced Cell Technologies Press Release). Retrieved November 28, 2004, from http://www.advancedcell.com/2002-06-02.htm

General References

Cameron, Nigel, (2003) Cloning at Christmas: a reflective commentary. The Center for Bioethics and Culture Network. Retrieved October 3, 2004 from: http://www.thecbc.org/redesigned/research_display.php?id=43

Ham, K., Looy, M., (2004). The scientific and Scriptural case against human cloning. Answers in Genesis. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from: http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2001/1127cloning.asp

McGee, Glenn, (2001). Primer on Ethics and Human Cloning. ActionBioscience.org. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/mcgee.html