A Look at Today's Whaling: Is it Sustainable?
Tara Plank
12/1/04
Biology Senior Seminar
Dr. Stan Grove
Thesis: Whaling has a long and important history, but with changing public attitudes and a changing environment, it’s necessary to discuss a modification in whaling and how it affects whale populations.
I. Introduction
-long history of whaling
II. The Change in Whaling
-development of whaling fleets
-explosive harpoons
III. The Change in Attitude
-whales in captivity
IV. The IWC
-its role
-two types of whaling recognized
a) research whaling
b) aboriginal subsistence whaling
-Makahs in Pacific Northwest
-illegal whaling
V. Is it Fair?
-whaling in Japan
-anti-whaling organizations
VI. Conclusion
-sustainable whaling
Introduction
“ The story of the whale is so remarkable, that were there not so many
witnesses,
I would not venture to tell it, lest I be accused of exaggeration.”
-J.D.B Stillman, aboard the ship Plymouth, November 1850 (Stewart, 1995)
There is no doubt that humans have always been intrigued with the majestic beauty
of the large giants found in all of the world’s oceans. Whales and people
have had a long history together, marked by many turns of events.
Long ago, native tribes, from many places in the world, depended largely on whales for protein in their diets. They were also able to use much of the whale for oil, thus began a tradition of whaling. The first documented whaling expedition occurred in South Korea around 6000 BC (Bryant, 2000).
Whaling began with smaller whales, since humans had only small boats and weapons, such as spears. However, as humans developed larger, more powerful weapons and built bigger boats, they also attained the ability to hunt larger whales. At this time, whaling became an industry, rather than a method of obtaining nutrition and oil when needed. As the whaling industry gained popularity the whale populations began to decline. Whalers moved from one species to another as their numbers decreased to a population size that was no longer economical to hunt. This strain on the whale populations was the heaviest with the creation of whole whaling fleets.
It is apparent, that although whaling has important economic value, providing
oil and meat, it also has a devastating affect on the whale populations that
are targeted. Conservation and sustainability of whale populations has been ignored
for a long period of time, leading to possible extinction for many species. Whaling
has a long and important history, but with changing public attitudes and a changing
environment, it’s necessary to discuss a modification in whaling and how
it affects whale populations.
The Change in Whaling
What exactly happened in the whaling industry that had such a detrimental effect
on the whale populations?
In the nineteenth century, commercial whalers began using whole fleets to hunt
whales, with each ship given a specific role. The largest ship, found at the
center of the fleet, was the factory ship. At the heart of these ships are
many tanks. Christopher Ash worked as chief chemist on the factory ship Balaena,
and
in his book Whaler’s Eye, comments on the massive tanks found in these
ships. “Balaena really is a tanker, and almost all of her hull…is subdivided into
thirty-six tanks. It is rather like an egg crate with nine rows, each of four
tanks extending across the ship, and each tank able to take some five hundred
tons of fuel or Diesel oil, which will be replaced—after cleaning—by
whale or sperm oil, or perhaps meat meal; sometimes they must be filled with
sea water as ballast. These tanks are impressively large, being well over thirty
feet deep; so that when standing on the bottom and looking up to the one small
square of light far above, it is difficult to believe that we can produce enough
oil to fill the whole of that volume in twenty hours (Ash, 1962, p.19).” Underneath the tanks is the bottom of the boat. Above the tanks is the tank
deck. This holds the centrifuges used to separate oil and glue water, as well
as driers
and bagging machines used to sack the meal before it is exported or stored
in another part of the ship. A conveyor belt runs the length of the tank deck,
which
is used to run bags of meal, cases of meat extract, whale lines, mess boys,
provisions, or frozen whale meat from one end of the ship to the other. Ash (1962, p.19)
explains, “There
is one siding that goes to an elevator for raising meal or meat blocks to the
level of the main deck ready for export; and a second one goes to the bunkering
port where the catchers take their supplies.” Above this deck
is the factory deck, where the majority of the processing occurs. Over this
deck
is the main deck. This is where the whales are cut up and the pressure cookers
are found.
The next ship found in the fleet is the tanker. These ships are longer than the
factory ships, but not near as tall. The factory ships pump whale oil into the
tankers.
Working out from the center of the fleet, the next ship is the freezing ship,
which has two functions: 1) receiving and storing frozen blocks of meat from
the factory ship, and 2) freezing meat itself. Fresh meat is sent by ferry
to the freezing ship, where it is then spread on the deck for hosing with very
cold
salt water before being cut up. In Christopher Ash’s (1962) experience, the
freezing ship, Enderby, joined the fleet before they were allowed to begin
taking any
whales. Except during storms, Enderby was always within half a mile of Balaena for the rest of the season.
There are a number of ferryboats that are a part of each fleet. The role of
these boats is to carry fresh meat, frozen meat, meat meal, and passengers
between
other ships. Another boat that had some “ferry-like” functions that
was found in Ash’s fleet was Thule. This ship was used to “bring
down fuel and Diesel oil, and to take back meat meal in bags or bulk (Ash, 1962, p.29)." In good years, sometimes Thule would take whale oil. If needed, the ship could
be used as a normal tanker. Other fleets may have had a similar boat that could
vary in functions.
Finally, the catchers and buoy boats are found at the outermost part of the fleet.
There are usually eight to ten catchers that are found up to a hundred miles
away from the rest of the fleet. Ash (1962, p.31) writes, “ It might seem reasonable for them to be equally spaced around us, but
usually the expedition is sweeping the sea like a broom in which the catchers
are the
bristles. When we are moving rapidly and there are but few whales, the catchers
are all trying to push ahead of us and each other: the best gunners have the
fastest boats and thus get into the lead, while the poorer ones feel that they
are more likely to find whales if they stick to the experts by crowding in
from the wings. The beautiful wide sweep has degenerated into a narrow scramble.” Buoy boats are used to tow the whales that are caught. Catchers are quite expensive,
so it wouldn’t be economical to make them bring in the whales that they
catch. Buoy boats also have guns, and occasionally are given permission by
the captain to chase the whales. This would occur if one of the catchers was
unable
to participate, perhaps due to propeller damage from ice (Ash, 1962).
Not only did the use of fleets change the course of whaling, but so did the
development of the explosive harpoon. When the harpoon is shot, it explodes
upon entering
the whale. This explosion does a lot of internal damage. One picture found
in Ash’s book shows an image of an orca whale bound to the deck of a ship,
with a large “balloon-like object” (Ash, 1962, p.67)) protruding from its underside.
The protrusion was its stomach, which was blown out from his ventral side when
the powerful explosion occurred after the harpoon entered his dorsal side.
This method of whaling was, no doubt, more effective then the spears that were
once
used long ago.
The Change in Attitude
Up to this point, whales were seen only for their economic value, and were
largely feared. In the video Where Have All the Orcas Gone?, researchers explain
that
in the early 1960’s the people of the Pacific Northwest had intentions
of shooting all of the whales in the area. However, a young orca whale named
Namu was captured and showcased in a floating pen that was dragged up and down
the west coast. People were finally able to dismiss images of whales, mainly
orcas, as vicious killers. The public watched as Namu’s capturers interacted
with him. This allowed them to grasp a new “cute and cuddly” image
of whales, which the public still holds today. This event also marked the boom
of the, now very popular, marine aquarium industry (Orca Conservancy, 2002).
To have a marine aquarium, one must obtain marine organisms. Thus began the
rush to “round-up” the orcas that were found in the Pacific Northwest.
The Orca Conservancy (2002) writes,“Between the years 1964 and 1976, the waters of Washington State and British Columbia
became a place to harvest wild orcas. In all, 57 orcas were brutally rounded
up and removed from these waters by Sea World and other aquariums for display
around the world. Many were drowned in the nets. The ones who made it out alive
lived short and deprived lives in concrete tanks. Despite Sea World's claim that
there were ‘thousands of whales in the Sound,’ researchers like
Dr. Mike Bigg and Ken Balcomb proved that there were in fact only 70 whales
left
by the mid-1970s. Today, only two of those captured orcas survive.” Both the whaling industry and the push to bring whales into captivity were
affecting the whale populations. Fortunately, during the 70’s, people
began to realize that the stress these two industries were putting on whale
populations may be
a problem. One researcher from the Orca Conservancy explains in Where Have All the Orcas Gone? that,“It was over the course of the ecological awakenings, in the late 60’s
early 70’s and all of a sudden, people were saying, ‘Well, wait a
minute. How many whales are out there? Can they sustain this kind of capture
rate?’ And indeed, nothing was known about them" (Orca Conservancy, 2002).
The government began hiring researchers to do studies on specific whale populations
in order to find out just how many whales were out there. Apparently, there
weren’t
enough, because in 1972, the United States issued the Marine Mammal Protection
Act. The Act (1972) states, “With certain specified exceptions, the Act establishes
a moratorium on the taking and importation of marine mammals as well as products
taken from them.” This ended both the capturing and killing of whales
(and other marine mammals) in American waters. However, not every nation has
developed
an act of this variety.
The IWC
Although not every nation has laws protecting whales, the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) was formed in 1946. Not every nation joined the IWC, but those
that did were given quotas for the number of whales that could be killed. These
numbers were made by estimating whale populations. Unfortunately, these quotas
were often too high, which made many of the populations decline. First, the largest
of the great whales, the blue, was hunted until its numbers dwindled to the point
that it was no longer economical to hunt. Whalers then moved to the next largest,
the fin. Following the fin whale was the sei, and now the minke, the smallest
of the great whales (Bryant, 2000).
The IWC is open to both whaling and non-whaling nations. Over time, more and
more non-whaling nations joined, shifting the focus of the IWC from a “whalers'
club to a conservation-minded organization. As a result, in 1982 the IWC was
able to adopt a resolution calling for an indefinite moratorium on commercial
whaling, which became effective in 1986.”
The current view of the IWC’s role, as stated by the Department of Conservation (1997-2004),
is the “international body with management responsibility for the world’s
great whales, such as the blue, fin, sei, Bryde’s, minke, right, pygmy
right, humpback, bowhead, gray and sperm whale.” It mentions further that “the
IWC meets annually, usually for about one month… [where it] considers
a broad range of issues, including:
-Status and trends of populations of great whales
- Developments of a Revised Management Procedure
- Environmental Threats to whales and other cetaceans
- Small cetaceans (dolphins, porpoises and small whales)
- Whale watching
- Aboriginal/Subsistence whaling
-
Review of ‘Special Permits’ for ‘Scientific Whaling’” (Department of Conservation, 1997-2004)
The IWC presently recognizes two types of whaling. First, scientists can obtain
special permission to take part in research whaling for scientific purposes.
Secondly, subsistence whaling is authorized for some aboriginal groups. The
IWC explains that it has “recognized that aboriginal subsistence whaling
is of a different nature to commercial whaling. This is reflected in the different
objectives for the two. For aboriginal subsistence whaling these are to:
-Ensure risks of extinction not seriously increased (highest priority);
-Enable harvests in perpetuity appropriate to cultural and nutritional
requirements;
- Maintain stocks at highest net recruitment level and if below that ensure
they
move towards it” (International Whaling Commission, 2004)
Currently, aboriginal subsistence whaling has been permitted to Denmark for people
in Greenland to hunt fin and minke whales; to the Russian Federation for people
in Siberia to hunt gray and bowhead whales; to St Vincent and The Grenadines
for people in Bequia to hunt humpback whales; and to the United States for people
in Alaska to hunt bowhead and gray whales. The IWC also provides these groups
with catch limits (International Whaling Commission, 2004).
One example of the IWC’s regulatory policies felt by aboriginal groups
occurred in the Pacific Northwest. Gray whales had always been hunted in this
area by four native groups: Nootka, Quillayute, Quinalt, and Makah. The Makahs
had a history of whaling, but over time, lost the tradition. Since they were
last hunted by the Makahs in 1928, the gray whales had found a spot on the endangered
list. In an effort to connect with their ancestors, the Makahs desired to begin
hunting the grays again. Because they were on the endangered list however, they
were not permitted to hunt them. In 1994, the gray whale was taken off of the
endangered list, and soon afterwards, the Makah attempted to begin hunting them.
As it turned out, the Makahs were not quite sure how to go about killing the
whales since they had not done so for so long. The skills and methods for capture
had not been shared and passed down. The Makahs did manage to catch one, but
once they got it on the beach they had to call Nootka leaders to come help them.
Once the whale was cut up and the meat was cooked, the majority of the Makahs
found they didn’t even like it (Horvath, 2004).
Illegal whaling also occurs. This happens when whalers take more whales then
they report. Unfortunately, this can go undetected for a long period of time.
Is it Fair?
The IWC gives rights to aboriginal groups to continue their traditions of subsistence
whaling. But there are other nations that have been attacked by anti-whaling
groups for wanting to continue their traditions of whaling. One such nation is
Japan. Shigeko Misaki, an advisor to the Japan Whaling Association, wrote an
article for the Whaling Library where he explains that,“Japanese history contains accounts of whaling since the time of the nation’s
first anthology of ‘waka’ poems compiled in 400 AD. In the seventeenth
century, whaling became the first organized system for manufacturing in Japan,
in which the distribution of lab as well as monetary transactions, were developed" (Misaki, 2000). Misaki further describes the conditions in which the Japanese people lived
following WWII. With so much destruction from bombing, Japan experienced a
large loss in
resources, including labor and its transportation system. Many Japanese people
were expected to suffer from starvation. Because of this, Japanese authorities
were ordered to begin whaling in the Southern Ocean. Fortunately, the whale
meat that was obtained helped to nourish much of the country, and it was incorporated
into a program to provide “national school lunch and home-based meals” (Misaki, 2000).
Japan (as well as other nations, such as Norway and Iceland) wants to continue
commercial whaling because there has been a long history of whaling in the
country, and the whale meat provides people with a source of protein. This
argument is
similar to that of aboriginal groups that want to continue the practice of
whaling. Japan also sees whaling as a great alternative to the livestock industry
since
much of Japan’s topography is not advantageous for grazing. Furthermore,
until the late nineteenth century, Buddhism prohibited the consumption of four-legged
animals (Misaki, 2000). However, many anti-whaling organizations seem to completely
miss the legitimate reasons whaling nations have for continuing the practice.
Greenpeace, one such organization, writes on its website,“Today, we are perilously close to witnessing a return to large scale commercial
whaling. Norway continues its commercial whaling program in the North Atlantic,
openly flouting the IWC's moratorium. Japan hunts whales under the guise of ‘scientific’ whaling,
even though the whale meat is sold on the market for profit. In the past three
years, both nations have increased the resources they devote to their whaling
programs, and both are aggressively pushing to lift the ban on commercial whaling" (Greenpeace, 2004). It seems that Greenpeace’s intentions are to increase its own popularity
by simplifying the issue of whaling and pointing fingers and specific whaling
nations. This will only raise hatred towards these nations, when the focus
should be to understand the legitimate reasons for whaling some nations hold,
then to
work at a better compromise.
Conclusion
“
A careful reader of Moby Dick would have discovered that ‘the whale has
no voice.’ This fact is repeated in the lines:—“the fear of
this vast dumb brute of the sea was chained up and enchanted in him; he had no
voice.’ Furthermore, Melville stated that ‘The great genius of the
whale…is declared in his pyramidical silence’” (Gleim, 1962, p.1).
Herman Melville (1952) was right; whales have “no voice.” That’s why
it’s important for whales to have advocates, working on their behalf.
Their environment continues to change. Fishing and whaling has had a hand in
disrupting
the balance of their ecosystem, along with a number of other things: toxins,
noise pollution, and boat traffic due to the increasing popularity of whale-watching.
There are so many factors that play a role in the health of whales.
However, there are some populations that have started making a comeback since
the 1986 IWC moratorium was put into place. This is a hopeful sign that perhaps
some sustainable whaling may be possible in the future. Unfortunately, a successful
method for sustainable whaling has not yet been developed. It is important to
work towards this balance so that whaling nations, such as Japan, can continue
the practices that are significant to their history as well as nutrition, just
as aboriginal groups do. We should work towards a policy that permits commercial
whaling, but that also falls in line with the objectives created by the IWC for
aboriginal subsistence whaling:
- “Ensure risks of extinction not seriously increased (highest priority);
-Enable harvests in perpetuity appropriate to cultural and nutritional
requirements;
-Maintain stocks at highest net recruitment level and if below that ensure
they
move towards it" (International Whaling Commission, 2004)
In order to do this, it’s necessary that both whaling and anti-whaling
nations work together, understanding that both groups have valuable information
to bring to the table.
Ash, Christopher (1962). Whaler’s eye. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company.
Bryant, Peter J. (2000). Whaling and fishing. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from
the
University of California, Irvine website:
http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec04/b65lec04.htm
Orca Conservancy (2002). Captivity. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website:
http://www.orcaconservancy.org/captivity
Department of Conservation (1997-2004). International Whaling Commission. Retrieved November
20, 2004, from the following website:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/Conservation/Marine-and-Coastal/International-Whaling-Commission/index.asp
Gleim, William S. (1962). The meaning of Moby Dick. New York, NY. Russel &
Russel, Inc.
Greenpeace (2004). Whaling. Retrieved November 21, 2004, from the following website:
http://www.greenpeace.org/whaling
Harris, Michael. The Inland Sea with John-Michael Cousteau: where have all the
orcas
gone? Clips from the video retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website:
http://www.orcaconservancy.org/captivity
Horvath, Beth. Gray whales. Lecture given on July 27, 2004 during a Marine Mammals
class through AuSable Institute.
International Whaling Commission (2004). Aboriginal subsistence whaling. Retrieved
November 20, 2004, from the following website:
http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/aboriginal.htm
Marine mammal protection act of 1972. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from the following
website: http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/marmam.html
Melville, Herman (1952). Moby-Dick. New York, NY: Hendricks House, Inc.
Misaki, Shigeko (2000). Media wars on whales and whaling. Retrieved November
21,
2004, from the following website: http://luna.pos.to/whale/gen_mis_media.html
Stewart, Frank (1995). The presence of whales. Seattle, WA: Alaska Northwest Books.