Helí Chambi

Biology Senior Seminar

Stan Grove

11-20-05

 

Changing perception of life as biology, medicine
and technology advance

 

 

I.-Introduction

" Beginning quote: "Nothing happens in living nature, that is not in relation to the whole."(Johann van Goethe)”

a- Thesis Statement: Biology has been changing through out the years, and we have reached a point where our research discoveries could maintain or create life. We scientist have the duty of thinking in the ethical problems which this could convey, and at the same time to realize where science it’s good or rather unbeneficial for humanity.

 

II. - Medicine in the 20’s century

 

a- Changes after war world II

b- Discovery of vaccinations, Scan and X-Rays

 

III. - Electronics part: monitoring systems

 

a- The invention of respirators

b- The invention of the AED

c.- Cheating death

 

VI-Genetics: new array of instruments and controversial procedures

 

a- Recombinant DNA/Clonation

b- Human Genome

c- Genetics Setbacks

 

V- Medicine of the 21 st century

 

a- Euthanasia: Passive and Active

b- Organ transplantation

c- Organ cultivation in vitro

d- Fertilization in vitro

 

VI- Response of the church about biotechnology and life choice autonomy nowadays

 

a- Religion negative about genetic procedures and euthanasia

b- People fear revolutionary new techniques

c- What does the bible tell us about this?

 

VII- Conclusion

 

 

Changing perception of life as biology, medicine
and technology advance

"Nothing happens in living nature, that is not in relation to the whole."(Johann van Goethe)”

Thesis : We have reached in biology a point where our research discoveries could maintain or create life. As scientists we have the duty to think of the ethical problems which this could convey, and at the same time realize where science is beneficial or unbeneficial for humanity.

 

Introduction

 

Human Medicine and Developmental Biology have been two areas in the scientific field which have supported each other with different studies and research about life. We have reached a point where our research discoveries could maintain or create life. As scientists we have the duty of thinking about the ethical problems which arise, and at the same time realize where scientific advances are helpful or unhelpful for humanity.

The advances in science in the past 50 years have been incredible. It is amazing that medicine can cure many diseases believed lethal 100 years ago, like smallpox. (A history of medicine, 2002). However, through the many discoveries which have helped humanity, many ethical issues have appeared on the topic of life and death. Questions have been formulated such as, have we obtained the power to finally create or discard life? Is aiming for perfection the right thing to do? Are religion and faith not a part of our beliefs anymore?

This paper is a reflection on the purpose of our studies; whether we are studying life in its natural state or trying to find a way to manipulate it just for the benefit of a few people. Also, are we forgetting that God is the only creator with the true right to create or destroy life? This paper’s purpose is also to help the reader consider how our society behaves presently and how we as human beings look at our own species as something greater with the autonomy to manipulate the rest of the universe.

We saw 2 months ago how destructive nature can be. There was a sequence in less than a month of three devastating hurricanes “Katrina”, “Rita” and “Wilma” (ABC news, 2005). It is interesting how nature (a Nature created by God) is so powerful that it makes us realize how little we are in comparison. I think it’s important to remember that we are at the mercy of God who is the ultimate creator.

 

Historical Background

Science has slowly been changing from Pre-historic times to the Egyptian age. Different cultures developed discoveries in science in different parts of the world. While the Egyptian medicine was being developed, the Oriental and the Greek were at the same time doing their own investigations (A History of medicine, 2002).

During the Renaissance, Galilei, Newton and Darwin contributed the first big steps in science. “After Copernicus threw the earth from its proud position of the center of the earth, or when Newton evolved the idea of gravitation and also the mechanical laws of our everyday life. Science started with strength in here.” (William 1958)

 

Medicine in the 20 th century

In nineteenth century medicine, the organic and microbial works discoveries developed rapidly, although most of this work continued until the beginning of the twentieth century. At the beginning of the twentieth century, medicine was more concerned with conservation of energy and principles of physiology, but most of the advances happened in the last half of this century.

“In 1840 in Germany the most prominent physiologist Johannes Muller collected

all available knowledge in his famous Outlines of Physiology, and did much

work himself on nervous action” (Garrison, 1960).

The nineteenth century was the time of Listerine and Pasteur with their revolutionary Pasteurization discovery (A history of medicine, 2002). Also in 1858, Charles R. Darwin proposed natural selection. In 1882, Robert Koch finally isolated the microorganisms responsible for tuberculosis, cholera, and other major epidemic diseases in the nineteenth century (A history of medicine, 2002). According to Garrison (1960), in the evolution of Modern medicine, as in the development of pure science of which it was part, there are three factors that seem of special importance.

“The first one was the great Industrial or social-democratic movement of civilized mankind, which following close upon the political revolution in America and France, intensified the feeling for intellectual and moral liberty, as exemplified in Napoleon’s saying: ‘The tools to those who can hand them’.

The second factor was the publication of such works as Helmholtz’s conservation of Energy (1847) or Darwin ’s Origin of Species (1859)

The third factor is an inevitable consequence of physics, chemistry, and biology becoming studies as objective laboratory sciences. Hardly anyone today doubts that the real advance of biological and medical science have nothing to do with theological dogma or metaphysical speculation (Garrison, 1960).”

 

Medical system begins to become organized.

In 1912, John Hopkins Medical University School opened in Baltimore , the first modern American Medical School . In the 1900’s, major organizations appeared in America like the American medical Association (AMA) and set up a council on pharmacy and chemistry (A history of medicine, 2002).

In 1918, Pandemic Influenza killed 15 million people worldwide, giving biomedical researchers opportunities to find new cures for this virus. Even though there were many discoveries, regulations were still put on different research projects. These regulations were more political issues than ethical or moral struggles.

There were many medical changes during and after World War II. In Britain , the biggest was the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS) (A history of medicine, 2002). Another discovery during World War II was the use of Sulfanilamide used to arrest bacterial infection, which was discovered by the biochemist Paul Domack. Bacteriologist Scottish Sir Alexander Fleming made another discovery in 1906 of penicillin. Penicillin is an antibiotic enzyme that attacks many types of bacteria. Because of the violence of war and in order to avoid infection and pain, researchers directed their studies to these areas. This brought the discovery of Morphine. Morphine was a pain killer processed from the opium poppy plant (Steinert, 2004).

 

Technology begins to make a difference in diagnosis.

German Physicist Wilhelm Roentgen studied cathode rays produced by a recently-invented piece of equipment called a Crooke's tube when he noticed that a fluorescent screen across the room started to glow (Association of British pharmaceutical, 2005). X-rays were discovered in 1985 and this was the start of medical imaging. Then in 1945, there was a very important advancement in biology which would mean a cure to many diseases, when Wilkins, Crick and Watson discovered DNA, the substance which codes for life. In 1945, ultrasound and magnetic resonance also made diagnoses. In 1950’s Professor of Midwifery at Glasgow developed the ultrasound. Around this time, Nuclear medicine was making more advances with imaging diagnosis medicine (Association of British pharmaceutical, 2005).

Many developments started since then, especially in the field of electronics in medicine. According to the U.K. divers’ organization (2005), a webpage describing the story of CPR, forms of CPR were practiced a long time ago. It all began around 800 B.C. The first resuscitation was Elijah’s mouth to mouth. Different methods were applied as time went by the most rude but logical to the most incoherent-- from the flagellation method to the barrel method, which consisted of an effort to force air in and out of the victim’s chest cavity. Different efforts from doctors contributed in to solve the mystery of the tiny edge between life and death. Medicine doesn’t simply focus on efforts to keep sickness and death away, but focuses on the effort to bring life back from death.

CPR, properly performed, was created by Dr Peter Safar in the late 1950’s and the early 1960’s. This technique cheats death, as the article “Peter Safar: A life devoted to cheating death” states "We have to find a way to pickle the whole human body with emphasis on brain and heart in the vulnerable period, within the first five minutes" of heart arrest.” (Srikawesman, 2002).

These factors made the idea of cheating death become stronger in 1972, but it was not credible until the first reported patient considered to be in PVS (Persistent Vegetative State) confirmed this theory (Srikawesman, 2002). The fusion of technology and electronics began the revolution of cheating death and keeping people alive with electronic devices and monitoring systems. This era constitutes the fusion between biology, physics, and electronic dynamics and has the main goal of keeping life sustainable after patients have been resuscitated.

Palliative care medicine era begins

Scientists believed that they had solved the key for life sustainability after the invention of CPR. Many different devices were created to actually keep life going after cheating death. The automated external defibrillator (AED) would also bring another chance to fool death, but this would have the risk of leading the patient into a PVS (wikipedia, 2005). Many cases, especially recently, raise a great amount of conflict. The question is, is it even worth to saving somebody’s life, if he or she is not going to be the same person?

Many different machines were created to keep patients alive such as machines for feeding or ventilation. Medicine took a big turn since it became more palliative than a medicine that cures or does not cure.

“The medicines which will prevent death, instead of prolong death started. As stated before where science had a strong push. Historically many different discoveries had allowed medical doctors to prevent death at higher levels with no need of harm on the body ( UK diver organization 2005).”

According to (Centenaro, n.d.) in 1959 French doctors reported the first cases of patients with massive brain damage who were still alive without signs of brain activity thanks to the mechanical ventilation. From this point on, the definition of death became polemic. According to the same webpage, in 1968, a committee of Harvard School of Medicine gathered 10 doctors, a lawyer, a theologian and a history professor. This committee gathered to redefine the definition of death. Three definitions were decided upon: Cardio-pulmonary death, Decerebrate death and Neocortical death.

The last part of the 20 th century and the beginning of the 21 st century were the highest points in development of technology and the development of modern medicine. This was the time when ethical problems increased and the philosophy of life began to clash with biology more strongly.

Around the 1950’s, issues concerning morality and legality of death began to be considered, due to the fact of the appearance of many cases of people whom would show a form of death which was defined as neo-cortical death.

“The first PVS patient was in 1972, the first patient was brought up back to life” (Banningan & Boss 2001). The sudden turn that medicine took after technology began to be applied changed medicine from alleviative to palliative. In London in 1972, Ms. Quilan shocked the world with the first case of PVS, when she consumed Valium, alcohol and barbiturates which caused anoxia on her brain for the a short period of time not long enough to kill her, but long enough to make irreparable brain damage. Many ethical discussions about death started (Banningan & Boss 2001). There were other cases such as the case of the Koestler couple in London who decided to take their lives away due to a terrible illness which would cause a lot of pain. At this point the Pandora box opened and many different issues and questions about life and death were on the opinion board. Society became more aware of these issues and medical boards met to discuss more about ethical problems in medicine. (Branningan & Boss 2001).

 

Genetics: New array of instruments for life and controversial procedures

As new medicines, new procedures and new ways to diagnose were discovered, the biggest topic of medical ethics became, “genetics”. In 1953, Drs. Watson and Crick made a discovery which would mean a 180 degree turn for science, specifically medicine. The discovery of the DNA strand was the beginning of a new kind of science. At first many experiments were performed because it was not clear what the strands could be use for. (A history of medicine, 2002). “In 1972, Berg and Boyer produced the first recombinant DNA. Then, Chang and Cohen showed how can the recombinant DNA molecule can be maintained and replicated in an E. coli”. (Lane, 1994).

In 1990, French Anderson and Michael Blaese performed the world’s first officially approved gene therapy which involved the correction of the Adenosine deaminase ( ADA ) gene in a four year old girl with ADA deficiency. (Gene therapy, 2005).

This source mentions revolution in progress. To what extent are phrases such as “medical revolution or biological revolution” not just a simple phrase but instead an idolization of science as God, According to wikipedia revolution is defined as the relative sudden and absolutely drastic change. My argument refers to what extent this drastic change is at the same time the separation from nature from its real creator “God”. Sometimes we emphasize in the change, forgetting the real meaning of science, and where it came from. This is therefore could be a cause for the radical separation among theology and biology.

In 1996, the first success in cloning an adult mammal was achieved by a team of British researchers led by Ian Wilmut at the Roslin Institute in Edinburg , Scotland . They were able to produce a lamb using DNA from an adult sheep. The well-known project “Dolly the sheep” was successfully cloned at this time (Kulkarni, 2004). Around 1990 the most important project in the history of genetics was started, it was called the Human Genome. he Human Genome had a goal of completing the 20-25000 genes in human DNA, as well as determining the sequence of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up the human DNA. There are many goals involved; including improving data analysis and related technologies to private sectors. (Human Genome project, 2004)

Even though there have been many advances in biology with respect to its techniques, there has been major setbacks as well. This is the main argument which keeps these techniques from being used in human beings. Among these setbacks, according to the Human Genome (2004) is the loss of human lives. In the case of Jesse Gelsinger: “Jesse was seventeen years old and was first diagnosed with an OTC deficiency which means that he was not able to make enough of the OTC protein, which is the protein used in the urea cycle and it is use to remove the excess of nitrogen that enters our bodies when we consume proteins” (Richards & Hawley 2005). Jesse was a participant in genetic therapy and when he was administered the dose of the gene therapy agent: This agent killed him. Another well known setback was in France when a 3 year old boy developed cancer following gene therapy for treatment of x-linked severe combined deficiency (Jelinek 2005).

Genetics and science could be used in a positive way to help to improve quality of life, but at the same time it could be destructive, creating standards for the “perfect” human being. According to (Steibock et al, 2003) genetics is a science of inequality, a study of human particularity and difference.

Lebensborn means "spring of life". The "Lebensborn" project was one of most secret and terrifying Nazi projects. Heinrich Himmler created The "Lebensborn" on December 12th, 1935. The goal of this society ("Registered Society Lebensborn - Lebensborn Eingetragener Verein") was to offer to young girls "racially pure" the possibility to give birth to a child in secret. The child was then given to the SS organization which took in charge his "education" and adoption (Jewish virtual library N.D.).

 

Discussion of Issues from a Theological Perspective

Many people compared the eugenics that we are trying to achieve nowadays with the perfect race that Hitler was trying to achieve. Presently we follow different societal requirements for each gender. Genetics can be really positive but one of the most difficult challenges is how to assimilate these evidences of human differences without undermining our commitment to political, legal, and moral equality. (Steinbock et al, 2003)

Medicine in the 21 st century has reached a point where it is uncertain about life and death issues. It can now keep a body’s physiological functions operating like normal, but it can not give back the essence of the true human being. There are such things as organ transplantation, when organs are extracted from other patient’s donors or from cadavers, and placed in the place of failed organs. There are also organ cultures where, as mentioned before, they come from stem cells which are grown and cultivated in vitro (Google web definition). Even through all these advances there is a question that remains still-- if we are totally autonomic for the creation of our own existence. Human organs and different animals have been created through cloning or stem cell research, but how can we compare the “life” of cloned human beings or life which has been created for human beings, to “life” that only God can create. According to “On Moral Medicine”, in the section on respect of life, Karl Barth states:

“Those who handle life as a divine “LOAN” will above all treat it with respect.

Respect is man’s astonishment, humility and awe at a fact in which he meets

Something superior-majesty, dignity, holiness, a mystery which compels him

to withdraw and keep his distance, to handle it modesty, circumspectly and

carefully” (Barth, 1998).

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a procedure which had its first success in 1978 by Dr. Edwards and Dr. Steptoe in England . IVF is a laboratory procedure in which sperm are placed with an unfertilized egg in a Petri dish to achieve fertilization, and the embryo is transferred to the uterus to begin pregnancy or it can be frozen for future use (Med-terms, N.D.) This is another technique which would create ethical struggles about creating life or helping to pro-create it. Many points in ethical issues start from the fact that human beings have laid their hands on the great job that God originally made.

The fact that man is able to control the process of procreation creates societal boundaries, since different aspects can be changed depending on the economic ability of the customer. In vitro fertilization can give people the happiness of becoming parents. Many good doctors do IVF solely with this purpose, but human greed, tempts some doctors, biologists and other scientists, to “perfect” life. This life has already been modeled after God to be the way it is “perfect”.

Men of faith in God’s Word and promise realize how God from eternity

has maintained and loved him and his little life. In human life itself he meets

something superior. He is thus summoned to respect because the living God has

distinguished it in this way and taken it to Himself. We may confidently say that

the birth of Jesus Christ as such is the revelation of the command as the

respect of life (Barth 1998).

The church has constantly argued against biology about recent procedures which are very questionable according to the theme of sanctity and respect of the work of God. Many religions have opposed science, but the strongest opponent has been the Catholic Church which has been actively trying to stop it. The Catholic Church has opposed to science since the early times of Galileo Galilei and Copernicus (Sotto-Yuvienco, 2005).

According to Peter Singer(1995), The Roman Catholic Church objects to fertilization in vitro on several grounds, including the fact that to obtain the sperm requires masturbation; which in the eyes of the Church is inherently sinful, even when it is the only way to bring children to a marriage. The church also objects to the division that the technique introduces between procreation and the sexual act, believing this weakens the marital relationship. Finally, the church condemns the loss of embryonic human life involved both in research directed towards improving IVF, and in the procedure itself.

According to the Christian internet Forum, “The word abortion does not appear in the Bible, but the following scriptures prove beyond doubt that God looks at the fetus as a living child from the moment of conception. It mentions too that in the bible the Greek work brephos is often used of the newly born, infants, and other children. In Acts 7:19 brephos refers to the children killed at Pharaoh’s command. But in Luke 1:41, 11, the same word is used for John the Baptist while he was yet a fetus in the womb, a pre-born infant. Therefore In God’s eyes, a fetus is the same as a child.

 

Conclusion

As we have seen, many of the discoveries in biology have been related to developments in Medicine, which in some way has caused the improvement of human life. There is a breakpoint where technology fused with biology, and this meant many different changes in the destiny of biology, and therefore medicine. This change meant many variations as well for medicine causing the appearance of palliative care, and from that, the goal of perfection of life.

Nowadays, we scientists have many powers over the decision of creating, or maintaining, and even ending life. This puts a lot of responsibility on our shoulders to decide to whom we entrust these capabilities. Sadly, we have been entrusting them to the wrong people, who have made a huge business out of it. I believe that a scientist should be professional enough to think and reflect about new discoveries which only they can explain. And through, that reflection scientists can decipher if these discoveries are positive for humanity in general and if they should be revealed or not at all.

Reading the Hippocratic Oath of health Care I found it really interesting the latest procedures and ethical issues are totally contradictory to what the oath says. The Oath says: “I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability and judgment; I will keep them from harm and injustice. I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect. Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art.”(Steinbeck et al, 2003).

It is interesting how the Hippocratic Oath has been deviating from its original argument. Scientists, and especially doctors, have totally changed and gone away from the real meaning of caring for patients. It seems that many of the “improvements” that medicine has had lately have been just a part of a business to benefit powerful insurance companies or research companies. This is contrary to what biology and health care always have been thought to practice, to truly care for life and people instead of making public health a privilege rather than a right.

 

References