Outline:
Thesis:
Introduction:
-the world’s population is increasing and becoming more urban.
-problems: pollution, sprawl…
Urban Sustainability:
-is it possible?
-the city as ecosystem
-transport: the car, mass transport
-pollution: industry, water, air, land, regulations
Polis, the Model City:
-Urban Gardens
-Park lands
-planning issues
Two-Thirds World Issues:
-population explosion
-infrastructure
-food availability and energy
Conclusions:
Bibliography:
Thesis:
As the global population increases and becomes more urbanized the urban
pressures of pollution, sprawl and decay degrade the environment and the
quality of life for city dwellers.
Introduction:
In his book, "The History of the City," Leonardo Benevolo comes
to the conclusion that the world’s best urban model has been that of
the ancient Greek city, or polis. He speaks of the polis as being, "dynamic
but stable, in balance with nature, and growing manageably even after reaching
a large size." While Benevolo may have been looking at these ancient
Greek cities with slightly rose colored glasses, none-the-less the polis
does set out an ideal for us to strive for in the planning and management
of today’s cities. In comparison to the polis the majority of urban
environments in the world fall pitifully short. The world is becoming more
urban at a rate that has never been seen in history. The pressures this
has put on cities increasing stress not only on the city but its surrounding
hinterland as well. The problems of the city range from the pollution of
the air and water ways to crime and tensions between racial groups within
the urban setting. While all of these issues are fundamentally related it
is not possible to deal with them all here. I will keep an interdisciplarian
view point but will focus this paper on the areas of increasing the environmental
sustainability of the city. It must be realized that there are many socio-economic
issues that can not be ignored and that the problems of urban settings are
very complex.
Urban Sustainability:
What are the environmental problems then that face the world’s cities
today? As will be shown they are many and diverse. The sprawling city of
Bangkok incorporates 3,200 hectares of farmland into its limits every year
(Lowe, 1991). This increases the city’s footprint and population while
at the same time destroying food producing area’s for the city. Bangkok
in this way is hit with a double edged sword. Las Vegas and other western
and west coast cities in the US struggle with dwindling water reserves.
They have been forced into considering such solutions as piping in water
or diverting rivers or some have even suggested pulling ice bergs down from
the polar cap. In Adelaide, a city of 1 million in South Australia, the
average rain fall in a year is 451mm while the average water consumption
per house hold is 265 dL for a year (Australia Department of Statistics).
Of this about 56% is used outside the house for water lawns and the like.
In all of these cities rain fall is low and yet residence still continue
to waste or at best carelessly use this precious resource. Urban sprawl,
hinterland degradation, water shred abuse, air pollution and a growing disconnection
to the land are major themes that arise again and again around the globe
in the ecosystems of cities.
Much of the mounting pressure on cities can be attributed to the huge rise
in urban populations over the last century. At the beginning of this century
only one out of every ten people lived in cities (Lowe, 1991). The middle
of the road predictions now are that by the end of this century half the
world’s population will live in cities (Fredstat). Already almost three
quarters of American’s live in cities and in countries like Australia
the numbers are over 85% (Platt, 1994). Two-thirds world countries are now
experiencing the doubling of their cities population’s in 10 to 15
years (Lowe, 1994). Much of this growth comes from rural to urban migration
based on economics (Platt, 1994). In many African countries, often the men
are forced to leave the countryside in search of work in the cities. As
these kinds of pressures compound, the difficulties facing the governments
of these countries, as they struggle to provide clean water, sewage, transport
and housing increase. Much harder still is the task of trying to plan and
control their developing industrialization that has great potential to do
incredible environmental damage.
Cities in developing countries are not the only ones to have felt the
pressures of increasing populations. In the US and other western nations
we are seeing similar urban growth. Here again we see rural to urban migration
but more destructive may be the unsuppressible advance to suburbia. The
trend we especially see in many American cities is the slow decline and
death of the inner city coupled with a mostly middle class that is fleeing
the city for the suburbs (Platt, 1994). Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 promoted
and put into place "green belts" of farmland and woods around
cities to limit their sprawl (Lowe, 1991). This showed a clear insight into
this problem. However, urban sprawl has hit a new gear with its ally the
automobile. This has made it possible for suburbanites to live further and
further out of the cities core and still commute for work by virtue of this
form of independent transportation.
Some efforts have been made to contain urban expansion but some have done
more harm then good. In North America and some other countries like Australia
low-density zoning has been introduced to try to curb urban sprawl (Lowe,
1991). Unfortunately these measures have had the opposite effect. By having
low-density zoning developers have had to increase the amount of land parceled
with each home. This has then made new suburbs sprawl more than ever. It
is clear then that in acting we must consider closely the effect of our
actions. We must be careful that we do not worsen the situation we wish
to improve. Louck says that there is a ,"substantial scientific underpinnings
required to develop the regenerative capacity in cities. When we intervene
to try to restore sustainability, we need to be sure the outcome will be
an improvement, not a higher risk of impoverishment" (Loucks, 1994).
Polis, the Model City:
How then should we proceed? What options do we have before us? In looking
at models of what can be and is being done I will first look at sustainability
in the urban context.
One of the first things that can be rightly asked about sustainable city
is if it even exists? Can a city coexist with its surrounding environment
or even be viewed as an ecosystem in its own right? In 1955 a gathering
was held at Princeton University dealing with urban human's interaction
with their biosphere. It was called the "Man’s Roles" symposium.
At this symposium Lewis Mumford caught the stream of thought in saying that
America was manifesting, "a tendency to loosen the bonds that connect
(the city’s) inhabitants with nature, and to transform, eliminate,
or replace its earth-bound aspects, covering the natural site with an artificial
environment that enhances the dominance of man and encourages an illusion
of complete independence from nature." The predominant view seems to
have been that humans, in particular city dwellers, were inherently destructive
to the environment (Platt, 1994).
While humans have been incredibly destructive of the environment many people
today believe that we can and must work toward ecological sustainability
in urban settings. In order for us to be able to work toward sustainability
we must change our view of the urban environment. We must begin to see the
city as a potential, thriving ecosystem in itself. Many people when asked
to identify nature in cities would probably point to the park areas. While
parks are a very important park of the urban ecosystem they are by no means
the total extent of it. Vacant lots, railroad right-of-ways, cemeteries
and other open spaces provide areas for nature flora and fauna to flourish
(Hough, 1994). Rivers, streams and lakes are present in many cities. Birds
have shown themselves highly adaptable to utilizing city space. Even larger
birds of prey, such as the eastern screech owl, have shown themselves to
be well suited to urban areas (Gehlbach, 1972).
Despite this wealth of nature around us in the urban setting many city inhabitants
never learn or are taught about their unique environment. We seem to think
that nature = non-urban. Michael Hough outlines an incident that happened
during a workshop with urban school teachers (Hough, 1994). Hough was leading
a discussion focused on making trips to ravines and other open areas where
children could see nature in the city. One teacher became fed-up with the
discussion and interjected a question about what was to be done if no "nature
areas" were close to the school. Hough’s answer illustrates well
how holes in our learning and failure to think more broadly inhibit a constructive
view of urban ecosystems. His reply was, "stand them in the middle
of the asphalt school yard and ask them why they are alive. That would be
a good beginning." Biology is about us everywhere and we are biological
organisms. Just because we are human does not exclude us from looking at
ourselves in similar ways as we look at other environments which do not
contain humans as a major component.
How then can we take concrete steps toward environmental sustainability
in cities? The first thing we need is a view shift as I have already outlined.
"The picture that emerges is thus one of discovery, of an urban society
beginning to look at it’s surroundings with fresh eyes, seeing new
possibilities in old things. A radical change in perception is involved"
(Nicholson-Lord, 1987). Part of this change is the step of looking at our
cities as ecosystems. From here urban sustainability can be nicely divided
into two areas,
- working toward greening the city itself,
- lowering the impact of the city on its surroundings.
The first can deal with how we use the land. Are we allowing this ecosystem
to, "insure an orderly cycle of material and energy transformations
and regulate the moisture economy" (Platt, 1994)? Do we, "cushion
the earth’s surface against violent physiographic change" (Platt,
1994)? The second is to realize that the effects of a city extend far beyond
its boarders. Most of the food is imported, the entire water shred is effected
by the city’s water use and abuse and polluted air is not just contained
within the city where it was produced. A broad range of issues must be addressed
in looking at these objectives. Specific actions that we take to improve
the way our cities work fit within these two areas. There are many things
that can be done and I will outline several.
Urban gardening is one specific approach that improves the situation in
several different ways. Agriculture in cities is not something that is foreign
in this century. During World War Two over 10% of the United Kingdom’s
food production came from cities like London (Hough, 1994). There were piggeries
in Hyde Park, which is a large park in London, and agricultural shows in
the basement of Selfridge’s department store. The pressures of war
forced this as a necessity for Britain but it shows what can be done. Because
of the many industrial activities of cities they often have concentrations
of nutrient energy, both mineral and organic. Land is often at a premium
in the inner-city though this is not always the case. Even when this is
the case tires gardens, window boxes and rooftops can increase growing areas.
Gardens can lower the volume of food that needs to be produced outside of
the city there by lessening the city’s foot print. Another benefit
is the increased direct interaction of city dwellers with the nature world.
By being involved with the growth process the greater connection to the
earth can be fostered. Additionally community gardens especially in economically
depressed areas can help to boast individuals self-view by allowing them
to help themselves as well as building a sense of community. Unfortunately
resources for gardens are allocated to more affluent suburban areas ahead
of the inner-city areas (Hough, 1994).
Park use is another area were cities could, over the shorter term, make
positive changes or increase protection. Parks are often serve many purposes,
recreation, wild life habitat, head water protection and so forth (Gill,
1973). The maintenance of biodiversity in a city depends a lot on the diversity
of park areas. This must be taken into account when deciding how park area
will be used. Maintaining swamps, wooded areas and scrub areas are all essential.
There are other issues that need to be dealt with which fall into the area
of city planning. Among these are transportation, urban density, waste disposal
and water use. These issues are mostly beyond the control of the average
citizen and are mostly in the realm of the urban planner or public servant.
However these people, in theory, react to the wishes of the general public.
We therefore can apply pressure to these people in order to affect change.
Waste disposal, transportation problems and the like are complex issues
and require innovative answers. Here science can have a very profound impact.
It is necessary for sufficient data to here been collected on an area and
adequate thought put into ideas before they are implemented. Otherwise we
may worsen the situation. Technology needs to also be applied to these issues.
Technology has been perceived a savior in the past and holds must promise
for the future. We must be very cautious though because to rely on miracles
to cures our problems will inevitably lead us into trouble.
The general members of the community can and must be involved in this greening process. As I stated before the pressure for change must come primarily from the general public. The general public must also be willing to change their habits accommodate the change. Take water use for instance. For those who live in drier climates restricted water use will necessitate changes in consumption and corresponding changes in cultural views. Bright green lawns must give way to brown lawns or lawns planted with native grasses or other plants.
Two-Thirds World Issues:
In the two-thirds world the main obstacle seems to be getting infrastructure
into place to be able to deal with the huge population increase. While many
of the other topics also effect two-thirds world countries' population increase
seem to out strip them all. The poor conditions that are experienced in
these cities mirrors, to a certain extent, conditions in many US cities
around and before the turn of the century. Working class neighborhoods of
developing Boston, New York or even London resembles the shanty towns of
Mexico City, Manila or Cairo. In the western countries a rapidly expanding
economy that came with the industrial revolution managed to pull up the
living standards of many city dwellers. However, this period of growth came
at high environmental cost. Many two-thirds world countries are going through
rapid economic growth at similar environment costs. When this growth seems
to be the only hope for the future governments is likely to overlook environmental
concerns in the face of what they see as larger more pressing issues. Pressures
of food and housing shortages, inadequate roads and sewage systems. It is
a hard situation that is faced here. If we wish to avoid cities becoming
increasingly more destructive of their environments then we must be willing
to offer assistance to two-thirds world countries both in knowledge and
monetary ways. This will not suffice though to solve the problem. In these
cities we will solve nothing if we do not address the underlying issues
of poverty and a global economic system in which those in the west control
80% of the resources. These are huge issues to address but they are integral
to an ever expanding majority of the world’s population.
Conclusions:
The challenge presented to us is a difficult one. World population growth
and increasing urbanization heighten the destructive capacity of cities
to their own environments and the surrounding hinterland. This challenge
must first be met with the realization that cities are ecosystem in their
own right. We must then struggle to find sustainability in our cities, in
the city itself and lessen its effect on the surrounding environment. To
achieve this much is needed. We need to renew our connection to the earth.
There must be scientific underpinning of any action, and we must use the
technology available to us to come up with new, less destructive ways of
doing things. Community support and will are essential as is a monetary
commitment from the government. We must have well planned infrastructure,
be it transport or waste disposal or urban sprawl. City planners and governments
will need to work together.
These are indeed hard topics. They come down to the everyday ways our cities
operate and they involve all urban people. They deal with the quality of
life we have and what we will pass on to our children. The words of a Nigerian
tribesman bring the reality into focus, "the land belongs to all people,
many of whom are dead, a few living, and countless left unborn" (Platt,
1994). The land in the end owns us and we are dependent on it. We can not
ignore the fact that we are part of nature even in a setting that we think
of as exclusively human. We must take up the challenge to bring our cities
into closer resemblance of the polis, the environmental city.
Bibliography:
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University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1995.
Dunkerley, H. Urban Land Policy: Issues and Opportunities, Oxford University.
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Gill, D.; Bonnett, P. Nature in the Urban Landscape, York Press, Baltimore, 1973.
Lowe, M. Shaping Cities: The Environment and Human Dimensions, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, 1991.
Nicholson-Lord, D. The Greening of the Cities, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1987.
Platt, R.; Rowntree, R., Muick P.; Hough M. The Ecological City: Preserving
and
Restoring Urban Biodiversity, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst,
1994.
Schwab, W. Urban Sociology: A Human Ecological Perspective, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, 1982.
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