II. History of Organic and Inorganic Farming
III. Obstacles to Organic Farming
A. Federal farm program
B. Research ignores organic method
C. Trends that have led to chemical dependency
- 1. Increased farm size and decreased number of farms
2. Tradition
3. Separation of land owner from farmer
4. Part time farming
5. Perennial weeds
D. Myths
1. Motive
2. Reversion to primitive agriculture
3. Convenience
IV. Problems with and Solutions to Conventional
Agriculture
A. Erosion
B. Energy
C. Water
D. Pesticides
V. Stewards or Exploiters: A Christian Response
A. Link between faith and farming
B. Applying biblical principles
C. Farming the land God owns
Introduction
Webster's dictionary defines stewardship as "the careful and responsible
management of something entrusted in one's care" (Webster, 1993). Sustainable
agriculture is a method that does not deplete soil, water, air, wildlife
or human community resources ("Community Alliance with," 1997).
These two principles describe a type of farming that practices responsible
management of the land in a way that does not deplete natural resources
or the human community. We are living in a time when many environmental
issues have come up due to such things as overpopulation, increased waste
production, over consumption, depletion of natural resources and other activities
that do not replenish the land. We must show great concern in dealing with
these problems. Farming is clearly a key element in sustaining life as we
know it, but it can also have devastating affects on the land. "Sustainability
rests on the principle that we must meet present needs without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, stewardship
of both natural and human resources is of prime importance" (Feenstra).
So, by managing resources under our care responsibly and practicing methods
that do not deplete natural and human resources, we can meet current needs
without compromising the needs of future generations. The idea of taking
care of things for future generations is of prime importance in dealing
with all issues that lead to compromising our environment. Farming is one
activity that can lead to the depletion of soil, water, air, wildlife and
quality of human community resources. Alternatives to conventional farming
methods are present and do have the ability to serve sustainably and with
stewardship.
Sustainable farming strives to avoid the depletion of natural resources
by opposing methods that rely heavily on petroleum products (gasoline, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides) and/or exploited labor. Organic farming involves
the strict adherence to three standards defined by the federal Organic Foods
Production Act of 1990. The act includes the stipulation that farmers must
be certified, continually increasing soil fertility and are prohibited from
using synthetic pesticides and fertilizers ("Community Alliance with,"
1997). Thus, sustainable agriculture involves a continuum, containing points
where limited use of synthetic products may be acceptable to organic farming
where none are used.
It can be argued that sustainable methods are very practical today, and
are important in retaining healthy land that will be productive in the future.
The history of agriculture shows how agriculture has developed to where
we are today with traditional methods. By looking at obstacles to organic
farming and the problems and solutions to traditional methods, we can see
the importance of increasing sustainable efforts. Furthermore, it is important
to look at the link between faith and farming and how people can apply biblical
principles to farming the land God owns.
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History of Farming
Modern agriculture began about 150 years ago with Justuus von Lieberg. He
is credited with discovering that the three basic elements of plant nutrition
could be dissolved in water and fed to plants directly. Ever since, nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium have been used in chemically formulated fertilizers.
These new fertilizers along with innovative seed hybridization and extensive
mechanization, have led to an incredible increase in productivity ("Feenstra").
In the last half of this century many dramatic changes in production have
been seen. This has been a result of new technologies, mechanization, increased
chemical use, specialization and government policies that favor maximum
production. The technology has led to greater yields and drastic increases
in farm size. With the increased farm size has come a decrease in the number
of farms, as the smaller farms cannot compete with the large scale businesses.
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Obstacles
to Organic Farming
Several notable obstacles are present in the agricultural society that act
as deterrents to organic farming. These obstacles are present, whether it
be in the attempt to convert from traditional farming techniques to organic
methods, or in the case of current organic farmers. The first of these obstacles
has to do with the federal farm program which has penalized crop rotation
techniques. When farmers put some of their acreage into a nonprogram crop,
a formula comes into effect where they loose a percentage of program benefits
in future years (Bender, 1994). Good crop rotation serves many purposes,
including insect and weed control, soil conservation, decreased soil compaction
and increased soil fertility ("Why Organic," 1995). Crop rotation
is a key element in sustainable agriculture that allows farmers to defend
against insects and weeds.
A second obstacle is the simple fact that agricultural research has largely
ignored alternative methods. A 1989 study in Alternative Agriculture
revealed how difficult it is for an alternative system to catch on, due
to, among other things, a lack in research efforts. "A systems approach
to research is essential to the progress of alternative agriculture. Little
research, however, has been directed to alternative agriculture, such as
the relationship among crop rotations, tillage methods, pest control, and
nutrient cycling. Farmers must understand these relationships as they move
toward alternative systems" (Bender, 1994). The study also pointed
out that federal policies work against moving toward alternative approaches
to agriculture.
Farmers also must face trends that have led to chemical dependency as an
obstacle to other approaches. An argument can be made that any size farm
can be organic, but with larger farms come increased managerial challenges.
Over one half of the farm land today is farmed by someone other than the
land owner. The tenants are faced with a couple of challenges when trying
to convert to alternative methods in these situations. The first challenge
is that the benefits of their work generally show up long term. Secondly,
managerial necessities increase, but are not shared with the land owner.
These necessities replace some of the cash expenses which are no longer
present, and may have been shared with the owner. Another trend leading
to chemical dependency centers around tradition. Young farmers are not as
likely to convert traditional farms. Their upbringing taught them that chemicals
are vital in farming. They find alternative methods difficult to accept
and adjust to. Part time farming has also led to chemical dependency. Time
constraints, in instances where other jobs are held, often make using chemicals
an attractive idea. Finally, the presence of perennial weeds often will
lead the farmers to pour on the chemicals. Unfortunately in these cases
the weeds are simply subdued while the infestation becomes worse due to
the asexual spreading of roots (Bender, 1994).
A fourth obstacle to organic farming is that it is often misunderstood.
Many times the weaknesses are overstated, while the strong points are understated.
Three myths are described by Bender (1994). First is the misunderstanding
that the only motivation to take up an alternative approach is in response
to a personal ethical or environmental belief. "However it is much
more than this. These systems effectively address such agronomic problems
as weed and insect cycles, fertility management, soil compaction, risk management
and nutrition cycling" (Bender, 1994).
A second common myth is that farmers are simply returning to an earlier
type of agriculture that will not stand up to today's productivity standards.
Low yields are not accepted by organic farmers. The management strategies
that go in to organic farming along with the production techniques are far
more complex than earlier days (Bender, 1994).
Convenience is also used to argue in favor of conventional agriculture.
Though it is not easy to convert to alternative farming techniques, it is
argued that with time the new system increases in convenience. "Because
of the interrelatedness of the components of pesticide-free systems, often
actions taken to meet one objective also contribute to attaining others
in ways just the opposite of what occurs in conventional methods. This is
one reason why pesticide-free farmers often claim that their farming becomes
easier every year" (Bender, 1994).
Problems
with and Solutions to Conventional Agriculture
In recent history, grain exportation has become very important to the nation's
ability to pay for oil imports. Grain exporting has become a sector of the
American economy that has provided like no other. Unfortunately the success
has not come without expenses. The downfall has been the wasting away of
the most importance resource, the soil itself. The major concern of organic
farmers is preserving the topsoil. Farming has become a business that feeds
the plants rather than the soils and it is leading to significant problems
of soil erosion and the destruction of microbial life. Ecological problems
that have occurred will not fully be understood until future generations
confront them. "Six problem areas must be resolved before we will have
an agricultural system that will be permanent and sustainable rather than
short-lived and exploitive" (Engelken, 1983). Four of these include
erosion, energy, water and pesticides. These four problem areas will be
discussed along with the role traditional agriculture has played in developing
them and solutions found in organic farming.
Synthetic chemicals used in agriculture have a number of effects on soil,
plant and animal life. Many chemicals destroy microbial life in the soil.
Microbes are essential for decomposing organic matter into humus. When chemicals
are used the land is left less fertile and increasing amounts must be used.
A decrease in organic matter breakdown leads to a decrease in soil fertility
and water retention. "Humus is the land's God-given sponge which keeps
the soil in place instead of washing away (Engelken, 1983). It is reported
that during the very dry summer of 1995, the growth of corn in Pennsylvania
by conventional methods was stunted, while the organic crop thrived. "The
soil enriched with animal manure and decaying plant material held water
better than the soil treated with chemical fertilizers (Organic Corn Hardier,"
1995). The United States looses about 3.1 billion tons of topsoil annually
due to erosion. Nearly 23% of cropland in the United States is depleting
its topsoil at a rate 15-30 times faster than it is formed naturally. Additionally,
it costs between $2-$6 billion dollars each year to deal with soil sedimentation
off the farm and economic loses are predicted to be $45-60 billion ("Cascadian
Farm?" 1995). Its is estimated that in Iowa, within 70 years, many
areas will have lost all the topsoil (Engelken, 1983). Developing more organically
rich soil seems to be an approach that will decrease the current trends
of soil erosion.
Farming organically has proven to use one-third less energy when compared
to conventional practices, according to studies at Washington University.
This is due to the high amounts of nitrogen fertilizers that are not consumed
by organic systems. "Conventional farming uses more crude oil than
any other industry, in the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides"
("Whole Earth"). Organic farming uses other methods to harness
nitrogen. Soil bacteria and legumes produce nitrogen by capturing it from
the air, and farm and city wastes (Engelken, 1983). "In sustainable
agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable energy
sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the extent that
it is economically feasible" (Feenstra"). In a time when we are
depleting many of our energy resources, it seems that chemical free farming
may help to decrease consumption.
Water can be both highly consumed and contaminated by conventional farming
methods. In the past, great attention has been shown to developing irrigation
systems. This has proven to be an expensive endeavor that also depletes
the groundwater supply. In addition water soluble fertilizers must be added
in higher amounts which lead to a lifeless soil that merely acts to hold
plants. Irrigation also leads to tight soil that cannot be penetrated by
the water (Engelken, 1983). Surface and groundwater supplies are contaminated
with nitrates, pesticides and industrial chemicals in 46% of all counties
nationwide ("Cascadian Farm?" 1995).
Pesticides have negative effects on soil, water and plant quality, as well
as harmful affects on the farmers who use them. Additionally, there is great
debate over the possibility of health problems caused by the ingestion of
pesticide residues by people. Pesticide use has increased 40 fold since
1950. With this drastic increase has come a significant decreases in the
effectiveness of the chemicals on their targets. During the past 40 years
the percentage of crops lost due to insect damage has doubled and the percentage
lost to diseases has also increased ("Why Organic?" 1995). This
is in large part due to the resistance that many pests gain to pesticides.
Many times significant resistance is found very shortly after the introduction
of new pesticides.
The health risks associated with consumer consumption of foods grown with
pesticides is highly debated and it is argued that many cause cancer, birth
defects, genetic changes or serious digestive irritation if ingested directly.
Some believe that pesticides can be exposed to plants without being absorbed,
although detectable residues have been found in 29% of fruits and vegetables,
32% of cereals, 55% of milk and 48% of potatoes in Britain ("Whole
Earth"). The major hazard of pesticide use seems to be in accidents
during handling and application of the chemicals. "There is a relatively
high incidence of ill-health among those engaged in applying pesticides."
(Pretty, 1995).
Several arguments are made by Jules Pretty in Regenerative Agriculture
arguing the point that pesticides are not ideal for pest control. In addition
to posing dangers to human health and damaging natural resources, pesticides
are often insufficient at controlling pests. Four points are noted by Pretty
(1995) in backing up this claim. First, pesticides often times will kill
off natural antagonists of the target organisms. Secondly, new pests are
produced by killing off the natural enemies of a particular species that
were not pests before. Another concern is that insects and weeds gain resistance
to chemicals and thus require further applications. Finally, no long lasting
solutions are found with pesticide use. It is simply a temporary solution
that must be repeated regularly. A key factor in why many high input farms
have insect problems in the first place was also noted. Most insect species
numbers are stable, but high input farms are common targets for infestation.
"Fields are planted with monocultures of uniform varieties, are well
watered and provided with nutrients. Not surprisingly, these are ideal conditions
for pest attacks, and frequently the scale and speed of attack means that
farmers can only resort to pesticides" (Pretty, 1995). "Rotation
does wonders to control insect populations. Monoculture is the greatest
single cause of insect population explosions."(Engelken, 1983).
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Stewards or Exploiters:
A Christian Response
Christian faith offers perspectives on how farmers should treat the land.
Today the standards by which farmers are judged shows primary concern with
profit-taking. Profit-taking and production rate, how clean fields are,
amount of land farmed and newness of equipment used all affect the way that
farmers are viewed at today. Often times principles that stress taking care
of the land are sacrificed in order to obtain this "prosperity."
Others believe that faith must play a role in the way that farmers treat
the land. Standards farmers use to evaluate themselves and others are often
not consistent with biblical teaching (Epp, 1987). Today it is viewed that
a good farmer makes the land produce as much as possible each year, obtains
as much acreage as possible and shares with other farmers from abundant
harvests. In the Old Testament a good farmer is described as one that cares
for and sustains the land while allowing it to rest, makes sure people have
access to the land and uses the land for productive resources and fruits
of the harvest in a way that benefits everyone (Epp, 1987).
Those who believe in God the Creator, hold that humanity was put in place
to be both trustee and steward. Humans have a special relationship with
the earth and it includes being the caretaker. "If our dominion over
the earth is rightly understood as that of being God's representatives here
on earth, we will work to nurture and sustain all of creation and to maintain
the earth's productivity forever. To have dominion over the earth is not
to dominate it" (Epp, 1987).
Others may believe that humans are to use the rich land given to them to
obtain all that is possible, regardless of the effects. History shows that
often times land has been ruined by civilizations who then went off to take
over the land of others. God also gave a warning to the Israelites concerning
the ecological consequences of ignoring the sabbatical year and putting
their trust elsewhere.
The purpose of the sabbath year was to keep humans from misusing the land.
Additionally, the Jubilee year was proclaimed as an opportunity for people
who had lost their land to return to it. Land is a gift to humans and according
to biblical writings is not to be built up at the expense of others.
Stewardship is a biblical principle that stresses caring for the land and
allowing the land to be productive for all. Today many traditional agriculture
techniques contrast with the Christian teaching that stewardship, sharing
and nurturing are virtues. Sustainable agriculture certainly incorporates
the belief that people must take care of the land given to them by God.
Taking care of the land is a concept that traditional agriculture often
times compromises.
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Conclusion
"There is strong evidence that regenerative and resource conserving
technologies and practice can bring both environmental and economic benefits
for farmers, communities and nations" (Pretty, 1995). Regenerative
systems are capable of the same yields as traditional farming techniques,
while reducing the needed inputs and environmental impacts. Modern agriculture
is having a remarkably poor impact on the environment. Sustainable Agriculture
has proven to be successful in rebuilding a healthy soil system that feeds
the plants and deters infestation. With open minds and better research efforts
sustainable methods will prove to be an appropriate solution to the negative
environmental impact of traditional farming methods.